This repository contains a list of 70+ scientific papers on cryonics, complete with short summaries of their findings.
The list is at the bottom of this page. You can also download it in .ods and .xls.
Feel free to use the table and the diagrams for any purposes. Everything in this repository is released into the Public Domain.
You can cite this repository as follows:
[SPTCR, 2018]
SPTCR: curated repository of scientific papers on cryonics, (2018), GitHub repository, https://github.com/RomanPlusPlus/scientific-progress-towards-cryonics
As the papers indicate, it's easier to cryopreserve smaller organisms than larger ones:
Note: we define "successful cryopreservation" as a cryopreservation, after which a reanimation was achieved. If it's a whole body preservation, the organism should be brought back to life and be able to survive for at least 1 week. If it's an organ, it should be able to perform its main function after the defreeze (ideally, confirmed by a successful transplantation). If it's cells, they should be alive after the defreeze, and show at least some indication that they're still able to perform their main functions.
By neural function / behavior after defreeze:
| function / behavior after defreeze | Lowest temperature (°C) | Details |
|---|---|---|
| brain cells are alive and healthy | -90 | Culture of fetal brain cells of a brown rat (R. norvegicus) |
| metabolically and functionally active synapses | -79 | sup. cervic. ganglion of a brown rat (R. norvegicus) |
| successful transplantation of the defrozen brain tissue | -90 | fetal brain tissue of a brown rat (R. norvegicus) |
| EEG shows no abnormalities | -20 | In-vitro brain of a cat (F. catus) |
| long-term memory is preserved | -79 | Whole body preservation of a nematode C. elegans |
| mammals: no abnormalities in complex behavior, higher nervous activity | -1 | Whole body preservation of a golden hamster (M. auratus) |
| humans: no abnormalities in complex behavior, higher nervous activity | 10 | Whole body preservation of humans (trauma patients) |
By specimen (humans only):
| Specimen | Lowest temperature (°C) | Details |
|---|---|---|
| cells (any type) | -196 | oocytes |
| brain cells | -80 | from a 9-14 week abortus |
| brain tissue | -70 | from adults |
| organs (adult) | 5 | The preservation standard for donor livers, as of 2018 |
| embryos | -196 | developed into healthy humans |
| whole body: children (accidental hibernation) | 16 | human: Erika Nordby |
| whole body: adults (accidental hibernation) | 14 | human: Anna Bågenholm |
| whole body: adults (controlled hibernation) | 10 | human: trauma patients |
By taxon (only adult animals counted; whole body cryopreservation):
| Taxon | Lowest temperature (°C) | Species (where applicable) |
|---|---|---|
| Animals (Animalia) | -272 | Tardigrades (Tardigrada) |
| Vertebrates (Vertebrata) | -32 | Salamander S. keyserlingii |
| Mammals (Mammalia) | -7 | Leisler's bat (N. leisleri) |
| Boreoeutheria | -7 | Leisler's bat (N. leisleri) |
| Euarchontoglires | -5 | Golden hamster (M. auratus) |
| Primates | 10 | Humans (Homo sapiens) |
| Humans (Homo sapiens) | 10 | Humans (Homo sapiens) |
By mass (only adult animals counted; whole body cryopreservation):
| Mass, kg | Lowest temperature (°C) | Species (where applicable) |
|---|---|---|
| <0,01 | -272 | Tardigrades (Tardigrada) |
| 0,01 – 0,099 | -32 | Salamander S. keyserlingii |
| 0,1 – 0,99 | -5 | Golden hamster (M. auratus) |
| 1 – 9,99 | 0 | Marmots (Marmota) |
| 10 – 99,9 | 7 | Domestic dog (C. lupus f.) |
| Year | Taxon | tissue, organ or whole body? | Approx. mass, kg | Lowest temperature (°C) after which a successful reanimation was achieved | Healthy brain activity / behavior after reanimation? | Reference | Useful link |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1876 | Guinea pig (C. porcellus) | whole | 1E+00 | 18 | Unknown | Bernard, 1876 | https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1959.tb49209.x |
| 1881 | Marmots (Marmota) | whole | 3E+00 | 0 | Likely yes (adapted to hibernation) | Horvath, 1881 | https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1959.tb49209.x |
| 1912 | Schreibers' bat (M. schreibersii) | whole | 2E-02 | -4 | Unknown | Bachmetiev, 1912 | http://priroda.ras.ru/ (1912 05) |
| 1933 | Bats (Chiroptera) | whole | 4E-03 | 0 | Unknown | Eisentraut, 1933 | https://www.jstor.org/stable/1376212?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents |
| 1949 | Human: unnamed donors | red blood cells | 9E-14 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith et al, 1949 | https://www.nature.com/articles/164666a0 |
| 1949 | Human: unnamed donors | spermatozoa | 3E-15 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Polge et al, 1949 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18143360?dopt=Abstract |
| 1950 | Tardigrades (Tardigrada) | whole | 2E-11 | -272 | Unknown | Becquerel, 1950 | https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms12808 |
| 1950 | Mammals (Mammalia) | skin | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Kreyberg, Hanssen, 1950 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1951 | Human: unnamed 23yo woman | whole | 6E+01 | 16 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Laufmann, 1951 | https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/312807 |
| 1951 | Brown rat (R. norvegicus) | whole | 2E-01 | 0 | Unknown | Andjus, 1951 | https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1959.tb49209.x |
| 1952 | European rabbit (O. cuniculus) | skin | <0,1 | -150 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Billingham, Medawar, 1952 | http://jeb.biologists.org/content/29/3/454.short |
| 1953 | Primate: lemur C. major | whole | 4E-01 | 19 | Unknown | Bourliere et al, 1953 | https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1959.tb49209.x |
| 1955 | House mouse (M. musculus) | spleen | 1E-04 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Barnes,Loutit, 1955 | https://academic.oup.com/jnci/article-abstract/15/4/901/915080 |
| 1955 | Brown rat (R. norvegicus) | whole | 2E-01 | -3 | Unknown | Andjus, 1955 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1365903/ |
| 1956 | Brown rat (R. norvegicus) | whole | 2E-01 | 0 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Andjus, 1956 | https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1959.tb49209.x |
| 1956 | Golden hamster (M. auratus) | whole | 1E-01 | -1 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Lovelock, Smith, 1956 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13359396 |
| 1957 | Mammals (Mammalia) | ovarian tissue | 5E-10 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Parkes, 1957 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1957 | Primate: some Simiiformes | whole | 4E+00 | 11 | Yes (habits preserved, no abnormalities) | Niazi and Lewis, 1957 | https://journals.lww.com/surveyanesthesiology/citation/1957/12000/profound_hypothermia_in_the_monkey_with_recovery.1.aspx |
| 1957 | Brown rat (R. norvegicus) | sup. сervic. ganglion | 5E-07 | -79 | full recovery of synaptic function | Pascoe, Parkes, 1957 | https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rspb.1957.0071 |
| 1958 | Mammals (Mammalia) | renal tissue | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Vieuchange, 1958 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1958 | Leisler's bat (N. leisleri) | whole | 1E-02 | -7 | Unknown | Kalabukhov, 1958 | https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1959.tb49209.x |
| 1959 | Mammals (Mammalia) | thyroid tissue | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Parkes, 1959 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1959 | Golden hamster (M. auratus) | whole | 1E-01 | -5 | Unknown | Andjus, 1959 | https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1959.tb49209.x |
| 1959 | European rabbit (O. cuniculus) | whole | 2E+00 | 14 | Unknown | Andjus, 1959 | https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1959.tb49209.x |
| 1959 | Human: brain surgery patients | whole | 6E+01 | 28 | Likely yes (a standard praxis in 2018) | Soleimanpour et al, 2014 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4166101/ |
| 1961 | Mammals (Mammalia) | adrenal cortex | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith, 1961 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1961 | Mammals (Mammalia) | epididymis | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith, 1961 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1961 | Mammals (Mammalia) | fallopian tube | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith, 1961 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1961 | Mammals (Mammalia) | hypophysis | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith, 1961 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1961 | Mammals (Mammalia) | parathyroid glands | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Russell et al, 1961 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1961 | Mammals (Mammalia) | prostate gland (ps.) | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith, 1961 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1961 | Mammals (Mammalia) | seminal vesicles | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith, 1961 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1961 | Mammals (Mammalia) | testicular tissue | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith, 1961 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1961 | Golden hamster (M. auratus) | heart | 1E-03 | -20 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith, 1961 | https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19620102256 |
| 1961 | European rabbit (O. cuniculus) | heart | 4E-02 | -21 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Connaughton, Lewis, 1961 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27072955 |
| 1961 | Guinea pig (C. porcellus) | uteri | 2E-03 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Smith, 1961 | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1963 | Domestic dog (C. lupus f.) | ureters | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Barner et al, 1963 | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1964 | House mouse (M. musculus) | thymus glands | 5E-05 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Playfair et al, 1964 | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1966 | Cat (Felis catus) | brain (in vitro) | 3E-02 | -20 | EEG similar to the control | I. Suda et al, 1966 | https://www.nature.com/articles/212268a0 |
| 1967 | Domestic dog (C. lupus f.) | small intestine | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Hailmton, Lehr, 1967 | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1972 | Mammals (Mammalia) | heart (fetal) | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | David, 1972 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1973 | Domestic dog (C. lupus f.) | kidney | 2E-02 | -22 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Dietzman et al, 1973 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27072955 |
| 1974 | Mammals (Mammalia) | bone marrow | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Karow et al, 1974 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1974 | Cat (Felis catus) | brain (in vitro) | 3E-02 | -20 | activity, but some EEG abnormalities | I. Suda et al, 1974 | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899374902637 |
| 1974 | Mammals (Mammalia) | cornea | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Karow et al, 1974 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1977 | Mammals (Mammalia) | embryos | 5E-10 | -79 | Unknown | Elliot, Whelan, 1977 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1977 | Brown rat (R. norvegicus) | pancreases (fetal) | <0,1 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Kemp et al, 1977 (via Fahy, 1980) | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0011224080900449 |
| 1980 | Brown rat (R. norvegicus) | fetal brain tissue | <0,1 | -90 | Successful transplantation into a rat brain | Houle, Das, 1980 | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899380909099 |
| 1983 | Human: unnamed donors | brain tissue | <0,1 | -70 | Metabolically, functionally active synapses | Hardy et al, 1983 | https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1471-4159.1983.tb08024.x |
| 1984 | Salamander S. keyserlingii | whole | 1E-02 | -32 | Unknown | Berman et al, 1984 | https://eurekamag.com/research/006/919/006919627.php |
| 1984 | Human: unnamed donors | astrocytes (culture) | <0,1 | -70 | Astrocytes were growing in culture | Kim et al, 1984 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6475502 |
| 1986 | Brown rat (R. norvegicus) | fetal brain cells | <0,1 | -90 | cultures indistinguishable from controls | Kawamoto, Barrett, 1986 | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899386912229 |
| 1986 | Human: unnamed donors | oocytes | 5E-10 | -196 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Chen, 1986 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2870356 |
| 1986 | Human: a 9-14 week abortus | fetal brain tissue | <0,1 | -80 | Brain cells were growing in culture | Groscurth et al., 1986 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3518539 |
| 1986 | House mouse (M. musculus) | brain cells (culture) | <0,1 | -15 | Normal electrical activity, regeneration | Scott, Lew, 1986 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3943556 |
| 1986 | Human: unnamed | whole (embryo) | 5E-10 | -196 | Likely yes (a standard praxis in 2018) | Graham, 2005 | https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-embryos-survive-th/ |
| 1986 | Human: Michelle Funk | whole | 1E+01 | 19 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Clawson, 2013 | https://survivor-story.com/miracle-2-year-old-recovers-hour-underwater/ |
| 1989 | Squirrel S. parryii | whole | 9E-01 | -3 | Unknown | Barnes, 1989 | https://web.archive.org/web/20081216233837/http://users.iab.uaf.edu/~brian_barnes/publications/1989barnes.pdf |
| 1989 | Brown rat (R. norvegicus) | Pancreas (islets) | 3E-08 | -196 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Warnock, Rajotte, 1989 | https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(89)90701-0/fulltext |
| 1994 | Domestic dog (C. lupus f.) | whole | 1E+01 | 7 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Taylor et al, 1994 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8555538?dopt=Abstract |
| 1999 | Human: Anna Bågenholm | whole | 7E+01 | 14 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Gilbert et al, 2000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_B%C3%A5genholm |
| 2000 | European rabbit (O. cuniculus) | kidney | 8E-06 | -3 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Kheirabadi, Fahy, 2000 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10919575 |
| 2001 | Human: Erika Nordby | whole | 9E+00 | 16 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Greaves et al, 2002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erika_Nordby |
| 2002 | Brown rat (R. norvegicus) | ovaries | 1E-05 | -79 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Wang et al, 2002 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27072955 |
| 2003 | Domestic dog (C. lupus f.) | whole | 2E+01 | 10 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Behringer et al, 2003 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12771628 |
| 2003 | Domestic sheep (Ovis aries) | ovaries | 1E-04 | -140 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Bedaiwy et al, 2003 | https://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282(02)04842-2/fulltext |
| 2004 | European rabbit (O. cuniculus) | kidney | 8E-06 | -45 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Fahy, 2004 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15094092 |
| 2006 | Domestic pig (S. domesticus) | whole | 5E+01 | 10 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Alam et al, 2006, 2008 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16456447 |
| 2007 | Human: aortic surgery patients | whole | 7E+01 | 17 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Hayashida et al, 2007 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17289482 |
| 2008 | Domestic pig (S. domesticus) | liver | 2E+00 | -40 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Gavish, 2008 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18729808 |
| 2009 | Beetle Upis ceramboides | whole | 2E-04 | -60 | Unknown | Walters, 2009 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19403530 |
| 2012 | Nematodes frozen for 26 years | whole | 3E-07 | -20 | Unknown | Kagoshima et al, 2012 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22987239 |
| 2015 | Nematode C. elegans | whole | 3E-07 | -79 | Yes (long-term memory preserved) | Vita-More, Barranco, 2015 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4620520/ |
| 2015 | European rabbit (O. cuniculus) | brain | 1E-02 | -135 | Activity not tested. Excellent ultrastructural preservation | McIntyre, Fahy, 2015 | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001122401500245X |
| 2015 | Domestic pig (S. domesticus) | brain | 2E-01 | -135 | Activity not tested. Excellent ultrastructural preservation | McIntyre, Fahy, 2015 | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001122401500245X |
| 2016 | Human: trauma patients | whole | 8E+01 | 10 | Likely yes (ongoing clinical trial) | Kutcher et al, 2016 | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26497780 |
| 2017 | Human: Tayyab Jafar | whole | 8E+01 | 21 | Yes (no abnormalities observed) | Ormsby, 2017 | https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/2017/02/19/this-queens-student-froze-to-death-on-a-kingston-pier-heres-how-he-came-back-to-life.html |
| 2018 | Nematodes frozen for 30+ tsd yrs | whole | 3E-07 | -10 | Unknown | Shatilovich et al, 2018 | https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0012496618030079 |
| 2018 | Human: unnamed donors | liver | 2E+00 | 5 | Irrelevant - no brain tissue | Buchholz et al, 2018 | https://journals.lww.com/transplantjournal/Abstract/2018/07001/Extending_the_Human_Liver_Preservation_Time_for.637.aspx |
Note: For the majority of the papers in the list, abstracts or even full texts are available on the Web. The full texts are usually behind paywalls, but many of them are available for free on LibGen. But check if LibGen is illegal in your country.
This repository is a work in progress. Feedback is highly appreciated!
Please feel free to edit it directly (you need to sign up in github to do it), suggest edits using the "issue" feature, or suggest edits at New_Cryonet or reddit.com/r/cryonics
You can also subcribe to changes using RSS.
In february 2019, a prominent figure in the cryonics movement - Mike Darwin - kindly provided some lenghty feedback on the content of this repository. It's available under this link. There is a lot of relevant info in it that we plan to add to this repository.
Timeline of brain preservation - a very detailed timeline of the history of cryonics