Daily Practice - HTML , CSS , JavaScript
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There are many ways to create objects in javascript as below
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Object constructor:
The simplest way to create an empty object is using the Object constructor. Currently this approach is not recommended.
var object = new Object();
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Object's create method:
The create method of Object creates a new object by passing the prototype object as a parameter
var object = Object.create(null);
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Object literal syntax:
The object literal syntax is equivalent to create method when it passes null as parameter
var object = {};
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Function constructor:
Create any function and apply the new operator to create object instances,
function Person(name){ this.name=name; this.age=21; } var object = new Person("Sudheer");
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Function constructor with prototype:
This is similar to function constructor but it uses prototype for their properties and methods,
function Person(){} Person.prototype.name = "Sudheer"; var object = new Person();
This is equivalent to an instance created with an object create method with a function prototype and then call that function with an instance and parameters as arguments.
function func {}; new func(x, y, z);
(OR)
// Create a new instance using function prototype. var newInstance = Object.create(func.prototype) // Call the function var result = func.call(newInstance, x, y, z), // If the result is a non-null object then use it otherwise just use the new instance. console.log(result && typeof result === 'object' ? result : newInstance);
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ES6 Class syntax:
ES6 introduces class feature to create the objects
class Person { constructor(name) { this.name = name; } } var object = new Person("Sudheer");
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Singleton pattern:
A Singleton is an object which can only be instantiated one time. Repeated calls to its constructor return the same instance and this way one can ensure that they don't accidentally create multiple instances.
var object = new function(){ this.name = "Sudheer"; }
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Prototype chaining is used to build new types of objects based on existing ones. It is similar to inheritance in a class based language.
The prototype on object instance is available through Object.getPrototypeOf(object) or proto property whereas prototype on constructors function is available through Object.prototype.
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The difference between Call, Apply and Bind can be explained with below examples,
Call: The call() method invokes a function with a given
thisvalue and arguments provided one by onevar employee1 = {firstName: 'John', lastName: 'Rodson'}; var employee2 = {firstName: 'Jimmy', lastName: 'Baily'}; function invite(greeting1, greeting2) { console.log(greeting1 + ' ' + this.firstName + ' ' + this.lastName+ ', '+ greeting2); } invite.call(employee1, 'Hello', 'How are you?'); // Hello John Rodson, How are you? invite.call(employee2, 'Hello', 'How are you?'); // Hello Jimmy Baily, How are you?
Apply: Invokes the function with a given
thisvalue and allows you to pass in arguments as an arrayvar employee1 = {firstName: 'John', lastName: 'Rodson'}; var employee2 = {firstName: 'Jimmy', lastName: 'Baily'}; function invite(greeting1, greeting2) { console.log(greeting1 + ' ' + this.firstName + ' ' + this.lastName+ ', '+ greeting2); } invite.apply(employee1, ['Hello', 'How are you?']); // Hello John Rodson, How are you? invite.apply(employee2, ['Hello', 'How are you?']); // Hello Jimmy Baily, How are you?
bind: returns a new function, allowing you to pass any number of arguments
var employee1 = {firstName: 'John', lastName: 'Rodson'}; var employee2 = {firstName: 'Jimmy', lastName: 'Baily'}; function invite(greeting1, greeting2) { console.log(greeting1 + ' ' + this.firstName + ' ' + this.lastName+ ', '+ greeting2); } var inviteEmployee1 = invite.bind(employee1); var inviteEmployee2 = invite.bind(employee2); inviteEmployee1('Hello', 'How are you?'); // Hello John Rodson, How are you? inviteEmployee2('Hello', 'How are you?'); // Hello Jimmy Baily, How are you?
Call and apply are pretty interchangeable. Both execute the current function immediately. You need to decide whether it’s easier to send in an array or a comma separated list of arguments. You can remember by treating Call is for comma (separated list) and Apply is for Array.
Whereas Bind creates a new function that will have
thisset to the first parameter passed to bind(). -
JSON is a text-based data format following JavaScript object syntax, which was popularized by
Douglas Crockford. It is useful when you want to transmit data across a network and it is basically just a text file with an extension of .json, and a MIME type of application/jsonParsing: Converting a string to a native object
JSON.parse(text)
Stringification: converting a native object to a string so it can be transmitted across the network
JSON.stringify(object)
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The slice() method returns the selected elements in an array as a new array object. It selects the elements starting at the given start argument, and ends at the given optional end argument without including the last element. If you omit the second argument then it selects till the end.
Some of the examples of this method are,
let arrayIntegers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; let arrayIntegers1 = arrayIntegers.slice(0,2); // returns [1,2] let arrayIntegers2 = arrayIntegers.slice(2,3); // returns [3] let arrayIntegers3 = arrayIntegers.slice(4); //returns [5]
Note: Slice method won't mutate the original array but it returns the subset as a new array.
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The splice() method is used either adds/removes items to/from an array, and then returns the removed item. The first argument specifies the array position for insertion or deletion whereas the optional second argument indicates the number of elements to be deleted. Each additional argument is added to the array.
Some of the examples of this method are,
let arrayIntegersOriginal1 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; let arrayIntegersOriginal2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; let arrayIntegersOriginal3 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; let arrayIntegers1 = arrayIntegersOriginal1.splice(0,2); // returns [1, 2]; original array: [3, 4, 5] let arrayIntegers2 = arrayIntegersOriginal2.splice(3); // returns [4, 5]; original array: [1, 2, 3] let arrayIntegers3 = arrayIntegersOriginal3.splice(3, 1, "a", "b", "c"); //returns [4]; original array: [1, 2, 3, "a", "b", "c", 5]
Note: Splice method modifies the original array and returns the deleted array.
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Some of the major difference in a tabular form
Slice Splice Doesn't modify the original array(immutable) Modifies the original array(mutable) Returns the subset of original array Returns the deleted elements as array Used to pick the elements from array Used to insert or delete elements to/from array -
Objects are similar to Maps in that both let you set keys to values, retrieve those values, delete keys, and detect whether something is stored at a key. Due to this reason, Objects have been used as Maps historically. But there are important differences that make using a Map preferable in certain cases.
- The keys of an Object are Strings and Symbols, whereas they can be any value for a Map, including functions, objects, and any primitive.
- The keys in Map are ordered while keys added to Object are not. Thus, when iterating over it, a Map object returns keys in order of insertion.
- You can get the size of a Map easily with the size property, while the number of properties in an Object must be determined manually.
- A Map is an iterable and can thus be directly iterated, whereas iterating over an Object requires obtaining its keys in some fashion and iterating over them.
- An Object has a prototype, so there are default keys in the map that could collide with your keys if you're not careful. As of ES5 this can be bypassed by using map = Object.create(null), but this is seldom done.
- A Map may perform better in scenarios involving frequent addition and removal of key pairs.
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JavaScript provides both strict(===, !==) and type-converting(==, !=) equality comparison. The strict operators take type of variable in consideration, while non-strict operators make type correction/conversion based upon values of variables. The strict operators follow the below conditions for different types,
- Two strings are strictly equal when they have the same sequence of characters, same length, and same characters in corresponding positions.
- Two numbers are strictly equal when they are numerically equal. i.e, Having the same number value.
There are two special cases in this,
- NaN is not equal to anything, including NaN.
- Positive and negative zeros are equal to one another.
- Two Boolean operands are strictly equal if both are true or both are false.
- Two objects are strictly equal if they refer to the same Object.
- Null and Undefined types are not equal with ===, but equal with ==. i.e, null===undefined --> false but null==undefined --> true
Some of the example which covers the above cases,
0 == false // true 0 === false // false 1 == "1" // true 1 === "1" // false null == undefined // true null === undefined // false '0' == false // true '0' === false // false []==[] or []===[] //false, refer different objects in memory {}=={} or {}==={} //false, refer different objects in memory
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An arrow function is a shorter syntax for a function expression and does not have its own this, arguments, super, or new.target. These functions are best suited for non-method functions, and they cannot be used as constructors.
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In Javascript, functions are first class objects. First-class functions means when functions in that language are treated like any other variable.
For example, in such a language, a function can be passed as an argument to other functions, can be returned by another function and can be assigned as a value to a variable. For example, in the below example, handler functions assigned to a listener
const handler = () => console.log ('This is a click handler function'); document.addEventListener ('click', handler);
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First-order function is a function that doesn’t accept another function as an argument and doesn’t return a function as its return value.
const firstOrder = () => console.log ('I am a first order function!');
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Higher-order function is a function that accepts another function as an argument or returns a function as a return value or both.
const firstOrderFunc = () => console.log ('Hello, I am a First order function'); const higherOrder = ReturnFirstOrderFunc => ReturnFirstOrderFunc(); higherOrder(firstOrderFunc);
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Unary function (i.e. monadic) is a function that accepts exactly one argument. It stands for a single argument accepted by a function.
Let us take an example of unary function,
const unaryFunction = a => console.log (a + 10); // Add 10 to the given argument and display the value
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Currying is the process of taking a function with multiple arguments and turning it into a sequence of functions each with only a single argument. Currying is named after a mathematician Haskell Curry. By applying currying, a n-ary function turns it into a unary function.
Let's take an example of n-ary function and how it turns into a currying function,
const multiArgFunction = (a, b, c) => a + b + c; console.log(multiArgFunction(1,2,3));// 6 const curryUnaryFunction = a => b => c => a + b + c; curryUnaryFunction (1); // returns a function: b => c => 1 + b + c curryUnaryFunction (1) (2); // returns a function: c => 3 + c curryUnaryFunction (1) (2) (3); // returns the number 6
Curried functions are great to improve code reusability and functional composition.
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A Pure function is a function where the return value is only determined by its arguments without any side effects. i.e, If you call a function with the same arguments 'n' number of times and 'n' number of places in the application then it will always return the same value.
Let's take an example to see the difference between pure and impure functions,
//Impure let numberArray = []; const impureAddNumber = number => numberArray.push(number); //Pure const pureAddNumber = number => argNumberArray => argNumberArray.concat([number]); //Display the results console.log (impureAddNumber(6)); // returns 1 console.log (numberArray); // returns [6] console.log (pureAddNumber(7) (numberArray)); // returns [6, 7] console.log (numberArray); // returns [6]
As per above code snippets, Push function is impure itself by altering the array and returning an push number index which is independent of parameter value. Whereas Concat on the other hand takes the array and concatenates it with the other array producing a whole new array without side effects. Also, the return value is a concatenation of the previous array.
Remember that Pure functions are important as they simplify unit testing without any side effects and no need for dependency injection. They also avoid tight coupling and make it harder to break your application by not having any side effects. These principles are coming together with Immutability concept of ES6 by giving preference to const over let usage.
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The
letstatement declares a block scope local variable. Hence the variables defined with let keyword are limited in scope to the block, statement, or expression on which it is used. Whereas variables declared with thevarkeyword used to define a variable globally, or locally to an entire function regardless of block scope.Let's take an example to demonstrate the usage,
let counter = 30; if (counter === 30) { let counter = 31; console.log(counter); // 31 } console.log(counter); // 30 (because the variable in if block won't exist here)
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You can list out the differences in a tabular format
var let It is been available from the beginning of JavaScript Introduced as part of ES6 It has function scope It has block scope Variables will be hoisted Hoisted but not initialized Let's take an example to see the difference,
function userDetails(username) { if(username) { console.log(salary); // undefined due to hoisting console.log(age); // ReferenceError: Cannot access 'age' before initialization let age = 30; var salary = 10000; } console.log(salary); //10000 (accessible to due function scope) console.log(age); //error: age is not defined(due to block scope) } userDetails('John');
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letis a mathematical statement that was adopted by early programming languages like Scheme and Basic. It has been borrowed from dozens of other languages that useletalready as a traditional keyword as close tovaras possible. -
If you try to redeclare variables in a
switch blockthen it will cause errors because there is only one block. For example, the below code block throws a syntax error as below,let counter = 1; switch(x) { case 0: let name; break; case 1: let name; // SyntaxError for redeclaration. break; }
To avoid this error, you can create a nested block inside a case clause and create a new block scoped lexical environment.
let counter = 1; switch(x) { case 0: { let name; break; } case 1: { let name; // No SyntaxError for redeclaration. break; } }
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The Temporal Dead Zone is a behavior in JavaScript that occurs when declaring a variable with the let and const keywords, but not with var. In ECMAScript 6, accessing a
letorconstvariable before its declaration (within its scope) causes a ReferenceError. The time span when that happens, between the creation of a variable’s binding and its declaration, is called the temporal dead zone.Let's see this behavior with an example,
function somemethod() { console.log(counter1); // undefined console.log(counter2); // ReferenceError var counter1 = 1; let counter2 = 2; }
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IIFE (Immediately Invoked Function Expression) is a JavaScript function that runs as soon as it is defined. The signature of it would be as below,
(function () { // logic here } ) ();
The primary reason to use an IIFE is to obtain data privacy because any variables declared within the IIFE cannot be accessed by the outside world. i.e, If you try to access variables with IIFE then it throws an error as below,
(function () { var message = "IIFE"; console.log(message); } ) (); console.log(message); //Error: message is not defined
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There are a lot of benefits to using modules in favour of a sprawling. Some of the benefits are,
- Maintainability
- Reusability
- Namespacing
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Memoization is a programming technique which attempts to increase a function’s performance by caching its previously computed results. Each time a memoized function is called, its parameters are used to index the cache. If the data is present, then it can be returned, without executing the entire function. Otherwise the function is executed and then the result is added to the cache. Let's take an example of adding function with memoization,
const memoizAddition = () => { let cache = {}; return (value) => { if (value in cache) { console.log('Fetching from cache'); return cache[value]; // Here, cache.value cannot be used as property name starts with the number which is not a valid JavaScript identifier. Hence, can only be accessed using the square bracket notation. } else { console.log('Calculating result'); let result = value + 20; cache[value] = result; return result; } } } // returned function from memoizAddition const addition = memoizAddition(); console.log(addition(20)); //output: 40 calculated console.log(addition(20)); //output: 40 cached
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Hoisting is a JavaScript mechanism where variables and function declarations are moved to the top of their scope before code execution. Remember that JavaScript only hoists declarations, not initialisation. Let's take a simple example of variable hoisting,
console.log(message); //output : undefined var message = 'The variable Has been hoisted';
The above code looks like as below to the interpreter,
var message; console.log(message); message = 'The variable Has been hoisted';
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In ES6, Javascript classes are primarily syntactic sugar over JavaScript’s existing prototype-based inheritance. For example, the prototype based inheritance written in function expression as below,
function Bike(model,color) { this.model = model; this.color = color; } Bike.prototype.getDetails = function() { return this.model + ' bike has' + this.color + ' color'; };
Whereas ES6 classes can be defined as an alternative
class Bike{ constructor(color, model) { this.color= color; this.model= model; } getDetails() { return this.model + ' bike has' + this.color + ' color'; } }
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A closure is the combination of a function and the lexical environment within which that function was declared. i.e, It is an inner function that has access to the outer or enclosing function’s variables. The closure has three scope chains
- Own scope where variables defined between its curly brackets
- Outer function’s variables
- Global variables
Let's take an example of closure concept,
function Welcome(name){ var greetingInfo = function(message){ console.log(message+' '+name); } return greetingInfo; } var myFunction = Welcome('John'); myFunction('Welcome '); //Output: Welcome John myFunction('Hello Mr.'); //output: Hello Mr.John
As per the above code, the inner function(i.e, greetingInfo) has access to the variables in the outer function scope(i.e, Welcome) even after the outer function has returned.
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Modules refer to small units of independent, reusable code and also act as the foundation of many JavaScript design patterns. Most of the JavaScript modules export an object literal, a function, or a constructor
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Below are the list of benefits using modules in javascript ecosystem
- Maintainability
- Reusability
- Namespacing
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Scope is the accessibility of variables, functions, and objects in some particular part of your code during runtime. In other words, scope determines the visibility of variables and other resources in areas of your code.
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A Service worker is basically a script (JavaScript file) that runs in the background, separate from a web page and provides features that don't need a web page or user interaction. Some of the major features of service workers are Rich offline experiences(offline first web application development), periodic background syncs, push notifications, intercept and handle network requests and programmatically managing a cache of responses.
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Service worker can't access the DOM directly. But it can communicate with the pages it controls by responding to messages sent via the
postMessageinterface, and those pages can manipulate the DOM. -
The problem with service worker is that it gets terminated when not in use, and restarted when it's next needed, so you cannot rely on global state within a service worker's
onfetchandonmessagehandlers. In this case, service workers will have access to IndexedDB API in order to persist and reuse across restarts. -
IndexedDB is a low-level API for client-side storage of larger amounts of structured data, including files/blobs. This API uses indexes to enable high-performance searches of this data.
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Web storage is an API that provides a mechanism by which browsers can store key/value pairs locally within the user's browser, in a much more intuitive fashion than using cookies. The web storage provides two mechanisms for storing data on the client.
- Local storage: It stores data for current origin with no expiration date.
- Session storage: It stores data for one session and the data is lost when the browser tab is closed.
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Post message is a method that enables cross-origin communication between Window objects.(i.e, between a page and a pop-up that it spawned, or between a page and an iframe embedded within it). Generally, scripts on different pages are allowed to access each other if and only if the pages follow same-origin policy(i.e, pages share the same protocol, port number, and host).
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A cookie is a piece of data that is stored on your computer to be accessed by your browser. Cookies are saved as key/value pairs. For example, you can create a cookie named username as below,
document.cookie = "username=John";
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Cookies are used to remember information about the user profile(such as username). It basically involves two steps,
- When a user visits a web page, the user profile can be stored in a cookie.
- Next time the user visits the page, the cookie remembers the user profile.
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There are few below options available for a cookie,
- By default, the cookie is deleted when the browser is closed but you can change this behavior by setting expiry date (in UTC time).
document.cookie = "username=John; expires=Sat, 8 Jun 2019 12:00:00 UTC";
- By default, the cookie belongs to a current page. But you can tell the browser what path the cookie belongs to using a path parameter.
document.cookie = "username=John; path=/services";
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You can delete a cookie by setting the expiry date as a passed date. You don't need to specify a cookie value in this case. For example, you can delete a username cookie in the current page as below.
document.cookie = "username=; expires=Fri, 07 Jun 2019 00:00:00 UTC; path=/;";
Note: You should define the cookie path option to ensure that you delete the right cookie. Some browsers doesn't allow to delete a cookie unless you specify a path parameter.
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Below are some of the differences between cookie, local storage and session storage,
Feature Cookie Local storage Session storage Accessed on client or server side Both server-side & client-side client-side only client-side only Lifetime As configured using Expires option until deleted until tab is closed SSL support Supported Not supported Not supported Maximum data size 4KB 5 MB 5MB -
LocalStorage is the same as SessionStorage but it persists the data even when the browser is closed and reopened(i.e it has no expiration time) whereas in sessionStorage data gets cleared when the page session ends.
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The Window object implements the
WindowLocalStorageandWindowSessionStorageobjects which haslocalStorage(window.localStorage) andsessionStorage(window.sessionStorage) properties respectively. These properties create an instance of the Storage object, through which data items can be set, retrieved and removed for a specific domain and storage type (session or local). For example, you can read and write on local storage objects as belowlocalStorage.setItem('logo', document.getElementById('logo').value); localStorage.getItem('logo');
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The session storage provided methods for reading, writing and clearing the session data
// Save data to sessionStorage sessionStorage.setItem('key', 'value'); // Get saved data from sessionStorage let data = sessionStorage.getItem('key'); // Remove saved data from sessionStorage sessionStorage.removeItem('key'); // Remove all saved data from sessionStorage sessionStorage.clear();
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The StorageEvent is an event that fires when a storage area has been changed in the context of another document. Whereas onstorage property is an EventHandler for processing storage events. The syntax would be as below
window.onstorage = functionRef;
Let's take the example usage of onstorage event handler which logs the storage key and it's values
window.onstorage = function(e) { console.log('The ' + e.key + ' key has been changed from ' + e.oldValue + ' to ' + e.newValue + '.'); };
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Web storage is more secure, and large amounts of data can be stored locally, without affecting website performance. Also, the information is never transferred to the server. Hence this is a more recommended approach than Cookies.
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You need to check browser support for localStorage and sessionStorage before using web storage,
if (typeof(Storage) !== "undefined") { // Code for localStorage/sessionStorage. } else { // Sorry! No Web Storage support.. }
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You need to check browser support for web workers before using it
if (typeof(Worker) !== "undefined") { // code for Web worker support. } else { // Sorry! No Web Worker support.. }
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You need to follow below steps to start using web workers for counting example
- Create a Web Worker File: You need to write a script to increment the count value. Let's name it as counter.js
let i = 0; function timedCount() { i = i + 1; postMessage(i); setTimeout("timedCount()",500); } timedCount();
Here postMessage() method is used to post a message back to the HTML page
- Create a Web Worker Object: You can create a web worker object by checking for browser support. Let's name this file as web_worker_example.js
if (typeof(w) == "undefined") { w = new Worker("counter.js"); }
and we can receive messages from web worker
w.onmessage = function(event){ document.getElementById("message").innerHTML = event.data; };
- Terminate a Web Worker: Web workers will continue to listen for messages (even after the external script is finished) until it is terminated. You can use the terminate() method to terminate listening to the messages.
w.terminate();
- Reuse the Web Worker: If you set the worker variable to undefined you can reuse the code
w = undefined;
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WebWorkers don't have access to below javascript objects since they are defined in an external files
- Window object
- Document object
- Parent object
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A promise is an object that may produce a single value some time in the future with either a resolved value or a reason that it’s not resolved(for example, network error). It will be in one of the 3 possible states: fulfilled, rejected, or pending.
The syntax of Promise creation looks like below,
const promise = new Promise(function(resolve, reject) { // promise description })
The usage of a promise would be as below,
const promise = new Promise(resolve => { setTimeout(() => { resolve("I'm a Promise!"); }, 5000); }, reject => { }); promise.then(value => console.log(value));
The action flow of a promise will be as below,
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Promises are used to handle asynchronous operations. They provide an alternative approach for callbacks by reducing the callback hell and writing the cleaner code.
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Promises have three states:
- Pending: This is an initial state of the Promise before an operation begins
- Fulfilled: This state indicates that the specified operation was completed.
- Rejected: This state indicates that the operation did not complete. In this case an error value will be thrown.
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A callback function is a function passed into another function as an argument. This function is invoked inside the outer function to complete an action. Let's take a simple example of how to use callback function
function callbackFunction(name) { console.log('Hello ' + name); } function outerFunction(callback) { let name = prompt('Please enter your name.'); callback(name); } outerFunction(callbackFunction);
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The callbacks are needed because javascript is an event driven language. That means instead of waiting for a response javascript will keep executing while listening for other events. Let's take an example with the first function invoking an API call(simulated by setTimeout) and the next function which logs the message.
function firstFunction(){ // Simulate a code delay setTimeout( function(){ console.log('First function called'); }, 1000 ); } function secondFunction(){ console.log('Second function called'); } firstFunction(); secondFunction(); Output // Second function called // First function called
As observed from the output, javascript didn't wait for the response of the first function and the remaining code block got executed. So callbacks are used in a way to make sure that certain code doesn’t execute until the other code finishes execution.
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Callback Hell is an anti-pattern with multiple nested callbacks which makes code hard to read and debug when dealing with asynchronous logic. The callback hell looks like below,
async1(function(){ async2(function(){ async3(function(){ async4(function(){ .... }); }); }); });
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Server-sent events (SSE) is a server push technology enabling a browser to receive automatic updates from a server via HTTP connection without resorting to polling. These are a one way communications channel - events flow from server to client only. This has been used in Facebook/Twitter updates, stock price updates, news feeds etc.
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The EventSource object is used to receive server-sent event notifications. For example, you can receive messages from server as below,
if(typeof(EventSource) !== "undefined") { var source = new EventSource("sse_generator.js"); source.onmessage = function(event) { document.getElementById("output").innerHTML += event.data + "<br>"; }; }
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You can perform browser support for server-sent events before using it as below,
if(typeof(EventSource) !== "undefined") { // Server-sent events supported. Let's have some code here! } else { // No server-sent events supported }
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Below are the list of events available for server sent events
Event Description onopen It is used when a connection to the server is opened onmessage This event is used when a message is received onerror It happens when an error occurs -
A promise must follow a specific set of rules,
- A promise is an object that supplies a standard-compliant
.then()method - A pending promise may transition into either fulfilled or rejected state
- A fulfilled or rejected promise is settled and it must not transition into any other state.
- Once a promise is settled, the value must not change.
- A promise is an object that supplies a standard-compliant
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You can nest one callback inside in another callback to execute the actions sequentially one by one. This is known as callbacks in callbacks.
loadScript('/script1.js', function(script) { console.log('first script is loaded'); loadScript('/script2.js', function(script) { console.log('second script is loaded'); loadScript('/script3.js', function(script) { console.log('third script is loaded'); // after all scripts are loaded }); }) });
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The process of executing a sequence of asynchronous tasks one after another using promises is known as Promise chaining. Let's take an example of promise chaining for calculating the final result,
new Promise(function(resolve, reject) { setTimeout(() => resolve(1), 1000); }).then(function(result) { console.log(result); // 1 return result * 2; }).then(function(result) { console.log(result); // 2 return result * 3; }).then(function(result) { console.log(result); // 6 return result * 4; });
In the above handlers, the result is passed to the chain of .then() handlers with the below work flow,
- The initial promise resolves in 1 second,
- After that
.thenhandler is called by logging the result(1) and then return a promise with the value of result * 2. - After that the value passed to the next
.thenhandler by logging the result(2) and return a promise with result * 3. - Finally the value passed to the last
.thenhandler by logging the result(6) and return a promise with result * 4.
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Promise.all is a promise that takes an array of promises as an input (an iterable), and it gets resolved when all the promises get resolved or any one of them gets rejected. For example, the syntax of promise.all method is below,
Promise.all([Promise1, Promise2, Promise3]) .then(result) => { console.log(result) }) .catch(error => console.log(`Error in promises ${error}`))
Note: Remember that the order of the promises(output the result) is maintained as per input order.
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Promise.race() method will return the promise instance which is firstly resolved or rejected. Let's take an example of race() method where promise2 is resolved first
var promise1 = new Promise(function(resolve, reject) { setTimeout(resolve, 500, 'one'); }); var promise2 = new Promise(function(resolve, reject) { setTimeout(resolve, 100, 'two'); }); Promise.race([promise1, promise2]).then(function(value) { console.log(value); // "two" // Both promises will resolve, but promise2 is faster });
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Strict Mode is a new feature in ECMAScript 5 that allows you to place a program, or a function, in a “strict” operating context. This way it prevents certain actions from being taken and throws more exceptions. The literal expression
"use strict";instructs the browser to use the javascript code in the Strict mode. -
Strict mode is useful to write "secure" JavaScript by notifying "bad syntax" into real errors. For example, it eliminates accidentally creating a global variable by throwing an error and also throws an error for assignment to a non-writable property, a getter-only property, a non-existing property, a non-existing variable, or a non-existing object.
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The strict mode is declared by adding "use strict"; to the beginning of a script or a function. If declared at the beginning of a script, it has global scope.
"use strict"; x = 3.14; // This will cause an error because x is not declared
and if you declare inside a function, it has local scope
x = 3.14; // This will not cause an error. myFunction(); function myFunction() { "use strict"; y = 3.14; // This will cause an error }
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The double exclamation or negation(!!) ensures the resulting type is a boolean. If it was falsey (e.g. 0, null, undefined, etc.), it will be false, otherwise, true. For example, you can test IE version using this expression as below,
let isIE8 = false; isIE8 = !! navigator.userAgent.match(/MSIE 8.0/); console.log(isIE8); // returns true or false
If you don't use this expression then it returns the original value.
console.log(navigator.userAgent.match(/MSIE 8.0/)); // returns either an Array or null
Note: The expression !! is not an operator, but it is just twice of ! operator.
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The delete keyword is used to delete the property as well as its value.
var user= {name: "John", age:20}; delete user.age; console.log(user); // {name: "John"}
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You can use the JavaScript typeof operator to find the type of a JavaScript variable. It returns the type of a variable or an expression.
typeof "John Abraham" // Returns "string" typeof (1 + 2) // Returns "number"
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The undefined property indicates that a variable has not been assigned a value, or not declared at all. The type of undefined value is undefined too.
var user; // Value is undefined, type is undefined console.log(typeof(user)) //undefined
Any variable can be emptied by setting the value to undefined.
user = undefined
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The value null represents the intentional absence of any object value. It is one of JavaScript's primitive values. The type of null value is object. You can empty the variable by setting the value to null.
var user = null; console.log(typeof(user)) //object
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Below are the main differences between null and undefined,
Null Undefined It is an assignment value which indicates that variable points to no object. It is not an assignment value where a variable has been declared but has not yet been assigned a value. Type of null is object Type of undefined is undefined The null value is a primitive value that represents the null, empty, or non-existent reference. The undefined value is a primitive value used when a variable has not been assigned a value. Indicates the absence of a value for a variable Indicates absence of variable itself Converted to zero (0) while performing primitive operations Converted to NaN while performing primitive operations -
The eval() function evaluates JavaScript code represented as a string. The string can be a JavaScript expression, variable, statement, or sequence of statements.
console.log(eval('1 + 2')); // 3
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Below are the main differences between window and document,
Window Document It is the root level element in any web page It is the direct child of the window object. This is also known as Document Object Model(DOM) By default window object is available implicitly in the page You can access it via window.document or document. It has methods like alert(), confirm() and properties like document, location It provides methods like getElementById, getElementsByTagName, createElement etc -
The window.history object contains the browser's history. You can load previous and next URLs in the history using back() and next() methods.
function goBack() { window.history.back() } function goForward() { window.history.forward() }
Note: You can also access history without window prefix.
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The
mouseEvent getModifierState()is used to return a boolean value that indicates whether the specified modifier key is activated or not. The modifiers such as CapsLock, ScrollLock and NumLock are activated when they are clicked, and deactivated when they are clicked again.Let's take an input element to detect the CapsLock on/off behavior with an example,
<input type="password" onmousedown="enterInput(event)"> <p id="feedback"></p> <script> function enterInput(e) { var flag = e.getModifierState("CapsLock"); if(flag) { document.getElementById("feedback").innerHTML = "CapsLock activated"; } else { document.getElementById("feedback").innerHTML = "CapsLock not activated"; } } </script>
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The isNaN() function is used to determine whether a value is an illegal number (Not-a-Number) or not. i.e, This function returns true if the value equates to NaN. Otherwise it returns false.
isNaN('Hello') //true isNaN('100') //false
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Below are the major differences between undeclared and undefined variables,
undeclared undefined These variables do not exist in a program and are not declared These variables declared in the program but have not assigned any value If you try to read the value of an undeclared variable, then a runtime error is encountered If you try to read the value of an undefined variable, an undefined value is returned. -
Global variables are those that are available throughout the length of the code without any scope. The var keyword is used to declare a local variable but if you omit it then it will become global variable
msg = "Hello" // var is missing, it becomes global variable
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The problem with global variables is the conflict of variable names of local and global scope. It is also difficult to debug and test the code that relies on global variables.
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The NaN property is a global property that represents "Not-a-Number" value. i.e, It indicates that a value is not a legal number. It is very rare to use NaN in a program but it can be used as return value for few cases
Math.sqrt(-1) parseInt("Hello")
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The isFinite() function is used to determine whether a number is a finite, legal number. It returns false if the value is +infinity, -infinity, or NaN (Not-a-Number), otherwise it returns true.
isFinite(Infinity); // false isFinite(NaN); // false isFinite(-Infinity); // false isFinite(100); // true
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Event flow is the order in which event is received on the web page. When you click an element that is nested in various other elements, before your click actually reaches its destination, or target element, it must trigger the click event for each of its parent elements first, starting at the top with the global window object. There are two ways of event flow
- Top to Bottom(Event Capturing)
- Bottom to Top (Event Bubbling)
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Event bubbling is a type of event propagation where the event first triggers on the innermost target element, and then successively triggers on the ancestors (parents) of the target element in the same nesting hierarchy till it reaches the outermost DOM element.
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Event capturing is a type of event propagation where the event is first captured by the outermost element, and then successively triggers on the descendants (children) of the target element in the same nesting hierarchy till it reaches the innermost DOM element.
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You can submit a form using
document.forms[0].submit(). All the form input's information is submitted using onsubmit event handlerfunction submit() { document.forms[0].submit(); }
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The window.navigator object contains information about the visitor's browser OS details. Some of the OS properties are available under platform property,
console.log(navigator.platform);
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The
DOMContentLoadedevent is fired when the initial HTML document has been completely loaded and parsed, without waiting for assets(stylesheets, images, and subframes) to finish loading. Whereas The load event is fired when the whole page has loaded, including all dependent resources(stylesheets, images). -
Native objectsare objects that are part of the JavaScript language defined by the ECMAScript specification. For example, String, Math, RegExp, Object, Function etc core objects defined in the ECMAScript spec.Host objectsare objects provided by the browser or runtime environment (Node). For example, window, XmlHttpRequest, DOM nodes etc are considered as host objects.User objectsare objects defined in the javascript code. For example, User objects created for profile information. -
You can use below tools or techniques for debugging javascript
- Chrome Devtools
- debugger statement
- Good old console.log statement
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Below are the list of pros and cons of promises over callbacks,
Pros:
- It avoids callback hell which is unreadable
- Easy to write sequential asynchronous code with .then()
- Easy to write parallel asynchronous code with Promise.all()
- Solves some of the common problems of callbacks(call the callback too late, too early, many times and swallow errors/exceptions)
Cons:
- It makes little complex code
- You need to load a polyfill if ES6 is not supported
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Attributes are defined on the HTML markup whereas properties are defined on the DOM. For example, the below HTML element has 2 attributes type and value,
<input type="text" value="Name:">
You can retrieve the attribute value as below,
const input = document.querySelector('input'); console.log(input.getAttribute('value')); // Good morning console.log(input.value); // Good morning
And after you change the value of the text field to "Good evening", it becomes like
console.log(input.getAttribute('value')); // Good morning console.log(input.value); // Good evening
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The same-origin policy is a policy that prevents JavaScript from making requests across domain boundaries. An origin is defined as a combination of URI scheme, hostname, and port number. If you enable this policy then it prevents a malicious script on one page from obtaining access to sensitive data on another web page using Document Object Model(DOM).
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Void(0) is used to prevent the page from refreshing. This will be helpful to eliminate the unwanted side-effect, because it will return the undefined primitive value. It is commonly used for HTML documents that use href="JavaScript:Void(0);" within an
<a>element. i.e, when you click a link, the browser loads a new page or refreshes the same page. But this behavior will be prevented using this expression. For example, the below link notify the message without reloading the page<a href="JavaScript:void(0);" onclick="alert('Well done!')">Click Me!</a>
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JavaScript is an interpreted language, not a compiled language. An interpreter in the browser reads over the JavaScript code, interprets each line, and runs it. Nowadays modern browsers use a technology known as Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation, which compiles JavaScript to executable bytecode just as it is about to run.
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Yes, JavaScript is a case sensitive language. The language keywords, variables, function & object names, and any other identifiers must always be typed with a consistent capitalization of letters.
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No, they are entirely two different programming languages and have nothing to do with each other. But both of them are Object Oriented Programming languages and like many other languages, they follow similar syntax for basic features(if, else, for, switch, break, continue etc).
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Events are "things" that happen to HTML elements. When JavaScript is used in HTML pages, JavaScript can
reacton these events. Some of the examples of HTML events are,- Web page has finished loading
- Input field was changed
- Button was clicked
Let's describe the behavior of click event for button element,
<!doctype html> <html> <head> <script> function greeting() { alert('Hello! Good morning'); } </script> </head> <body> <button type="button" onclick="greeting()">Click me</button> </body> </html>
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JavaScript was created by Brendan Eich in 1995 during his time at Netscape Communications. Initially it was developed under the name
Mocha, but later the language was officially calledLiveScriptwhen it first shipped in beta releases of Netscape. -
The preventDefault() method cancels the event if it is cancelable, meaning that the default action or behaviour that belongs to the event will not occur. For example, prevent form submission when clicking on submit button and prevent opening the page URL when clicking on hyperlink are some common use cases.
document.getElementById("link").addEventListener("click", function(event){ event.preventDefault(); });
Note: Remember that not all events are cancelable.
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The stopPropagation method is used to stop the event from bubbling up the event chain. For example, the below nested divs with stopPropagation method prevents default event propagation when clicking on nested div(Div1)
<p>Click DIV1 Element</p> <div onclick="secondFunc()">DIV 2 <div onclick="firstFunc(event)">DIV 1</div> </div> <script> function firstFunc(event) { alert("DIV 1"); event.stopPropagation(); } function secondFunc() { alert("DIV 2"); } </script>
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The return false statement in event handlers performs the below steps,
- First it stops the browser's default action or behaviour.
- It prevents the event from propagating the DOM
- Stops callback execution and returns immediately when called.
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The Browser Object Model (BOM) allows JavaScript to "talk to" the browser. It consists of the objects navigator, history, screen, location and document which are children of the window. The Browser Object Model is not standardized and can change based on different browsers.
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The setTimeout() method is used to call a function or evaluate an expression after a specified number of milliseconds. For example, let's log a message after 2 seconds using setTimeout method,
setTimeout(function(){ console.log("Good morning"); }, 2000);
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The setInterval() method is used to call a function or evaluate an expression at specified intervals (in milliseconds). For example, let's log a message after 2 seconds using setInterval method,
setInterval(function(){ console.log("Good morning"); }, 2000);
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JavaScript is a single-threaded language. Because the language specification does not allow the programmer to write code so that the interpreter can run parts of it in parallel in multiple threads or processes. Whereas languages like java, go, C++ can make multi-threaded and multi-process programs.
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Event delegation is a technique for listening to events where you delegate a parent element as the listener for all of the events that happen inside it.
For example, if you wanted to detect field changes in inside a specific form, you can use event delegation technique,
var form = document.querySelector('#registration-form'); // Listen for changes to fields inside the form form.addEventListener('input', function (event) { // Log the field that was changed console.log(event.target); }, false);
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ECMAScript is the scripting language that forms the basis of JavaScript. ECMAScript standardized by the ECMA International standards organization in the ECMA-262 and ECMA-402 specifications. The first edition of ECMAScript was released in 1997.
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JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is a lightweight format that is used for data interchanging. It is based on a subset of JavaScript language in the way objects are built in JavaScript.
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Below are the list of syntax rules of JSON
- The data is in name/value pairs
- The data is separated by commas
- Curly braces hold objects
- Square brackets hold arrays
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When sending data to a web server, the data has to be in a string format. You can achieve this by converting JSON object into a string using stringify() method.
var userJSON = {'name': 'John', age: 31} var userString = JSON.stringify(user); console.log(userString); //"{"name":"John","age":31}"
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When receiving the data from a web server, the data is always in a string format. But you can convert this string value to a javascript object using parse() method.
var userString = '{"name":"John","age":31}'; var userJSON = JSON.parse(userString); console.log(userJSON);// {name: "John", age: 31}
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When exchanging data between a browser and a server, the data can only be text. Since JSON is text only, it can easily be sent to and from a server, and used as a data format by any programming language.
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Progressive web applications (PWAs) are a type of mobile app delivered through the web, built using common web technologies including HTML, CSS and JavaScript. These PWAs are deployed to servers, accessible through URLs, and indexed by search engines.
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The clearTimeout() function is used in javascript to clear the timeout which has been set by setTimeout()function before that. i.e, The return value of setTimeout() function is stored in a variable and it’s passed into the clearTimeout() function to clear the timer.
For example, the below setTimeout method is used to display the message after 3 seconds. This timeout can be cleared by the clearTimeout() method.
<script> var msg; function greeting() { alert('Good morning'); } function start() { msg =setTimeout(greeting, 3000); } function stop() { clearTimeout(msg); } </script>
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The clearInterval() function is used in javascript to clear the interval which has been set by setInterval() function. i.e, The return value returned by setInterval() function is stored in a variable and it’s passed into the clearInterval() function to clear the interval.
For example, the below setInterval method is used to display the message for every 3 seconds. This interval can be cleared by the clearInterval() method.
<script> var msg; function greeting() { alert('Good morning'); } function start() { msg = setInterval(greeting, 3000); } function stop() { clearInterval(msg); } </script>
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In vanilla javascript, you can redirect to a new page using the
locationproperty of window object. The syntax would be as follows,function redirect() { window.location.href = 'newPage.html'; }
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There are 3 possible ways to check whether a string contains a substring or not,
- Using includes: ES6 provided
String.prototype.includesmethod to test a string contains a substring
var mainString = "hello", subString = "hell"; mainString.includes(subString)
- Using indexOf: In an ES5 or older environment, you can use
String.prototype.indexOfwhich returns the index of a substring. If the index value is not equal to -1 then it means the substring exists in the main string.
var mainString = "hello", subString = "hell"; mainString.indexOf(subString) !== -1
- Using RegEx: The advanced solution is using Regular expression's test method(
RegExp.test), which allows for testing for against regular expressions
var mainString = "hello", regex = /hell/; regex.test(mainString)
- Using includes: ES6 provided
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You can validate an email in javascript using regular expressions. It is recommended to do validations on the server side instead of the client side. Because the javascript can be disabled on the client side.
function validateEmail(email) { var re = /^(([^<>()\[\]\\.,;:\s@"]+(\.[^<>()\[\]\\.,;:\s@"]+)*)|(".+"))@((\[[0-9]{1,3}\.[0-9]{1,3}\.[0-9]{1,3}\.[0-9]{1,3}\])|(([a-zA-Z\-0-9]+\.)+[a-zA-Z]{2,}))$/; return re.test(String(email).toLowerCase()); }
The above regular expression accepts unicode characters.
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You can use
window.location.hrefexpression to get the current url path and you can use the same expression for updating the URL too. You can also usedocument.URLfor read-only purposes but this solution has issues in FF.console.log('location.href', window.location.href); // Returns full URL
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The below
Locationobject properties can be used to access URL components of the page,- href - The entire URL
- protocol - The protocol of the URL
- host - The hostname and port of the URL
- hostname - The hostname of the URL
- port - The port number in the URL
- pathname - The path name of the URL
- search - The query portion of the URL
- hash - The anchor portion of the URL
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You can use URLSearchParams to get query string values in javascript. Let's see an example to get the client code value from URL query string,
const urlParams = new URLSearchParams(window.location.search); const clientCode = urlParams.get('clientCode');
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You can check whether a key exists in an object or not using three approaches,
- Using in operator: You can use the in operator whether a key exists in an object or not
"key" in obj
and If you want to check if a key doesn't exist, remember to use parenthesis,
!("key" in obj)
- Using hasOwnProperty method: You can use
hasOwnPropertyto particularly test for properties of the object instance (and not inherited properties)
obj.hasOwnProperty("key") // true
- Using undefined comparison: If you access a non-existing property from an object, the result is undefined. Let’s compare the properties against undefined to determine the existence of the property.
const user = { name: 'John' }; console.log(user.name !== undefined); // true console.log(user.nickName !== undefined); // false
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You can use the
for-inloop to loop through javascript object. You can also make sure that the key you get is an actual property of an object, and doesn't come from the prototype usinghasOwnPropertymethod.var object = { "k1": "value1", "k2": "value2", "k3": "value3" }; for (var key in object) { if (object.hasOwnProperty(key)) { console.log(key + " -> " + object[key]); // k1 -> value1 ... } }
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There are different solutions based on ECMAScript versions
- Using Object entries(ECMA 7+): You can use object entries length along with constructor type.
Object.entries(obj).length === 0 && obj.constructor === Object // Since date object length is 0, you need to check constructor check as well
- Using Object keys(ECMA 5+): You can use object keys length along with constructor type.
Object.keys(obj).length === 0 && obj.constructor === Object // Since date object length is 0, you need to check constructor check as well
- Using for-in with hasOwnProperty(Pre-ECMA 5): You can use a for-in loop along with hasOwnProperty.
function isEmpty(obj) { for(var prop in obj) { if(obj.hasOwnProperty(prop)) { return false; } } return JSON.stringify(obj) === JSON.stringify({}); }
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The arguments object is an Array-like object accessible inside functions that contains the values of the arguments passed to that function. For example, let's see how to use arguments object inside sum function,
function sum() { var total = 0; for (var i = 0, len = arguments.length; i < len; ++i) { total += arguments[i]; } return total; } sum(1, 2, 3) // returns 6
Note: You can't apply array methods on arguments object. But you can convert into a regular array as below.
var argsArray = Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments);
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You can create a function which uses a chain of string methods such as charAt, toUpperCase and slice methods to generate a string with the first letter in uppercase.
function capitalizeFirstLetter(string) { return string.charAt(0).toUpperCase() + string.slice(1); }
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The for-loop is a commonly used iteration syntax in javascript. It has both pros and cons
- Works on every environment
- You can use break and continue flow control statements
- Too verbose
- Imperative
- You might face one-by-off errors
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You can use
new Date()to generate a new Date object containing the current date and time. For example, let's display the current date in mm/dd/yyyyvar today = new Date(); var dd = String(today.getDate()).padStart(2, '0'); var mm = String(today.getMonth() + 1).padStart(2, '0'); //January is 0! var yyyy = today.getFullYear(); today = mm + '/' + dd + '/' + yyyy; document.write(today);
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You need to use date.getTime() method to compare date values instead of comparison operators (==, !=, ===, and !== operators)
var d1 = new Date(); var d2 = new Date(d1); console.log(d1.getTime() === d2.getTime()); //True console.log(d1 === d2); // False
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You can use ECMAScript 6's
String.prototype.startsWith()method to check if a string starts with another string or not. But it is not yet supported in all browsers. Let's see an example to see this usage,"Good morning".startsWith("Good"); // true "Good morning".startsWith("morning"); // false
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JavaScript provided a trim method on string types to trim any whitespaces present at the beginning or ending of the string.
" Hello World ".trim(); //Hello World
If your browser(<IE9) doesn't support this method then you can use below polyfill.
if (!String.prototype.trim) { (function() { // Make sure we trim BOM and NBSP var rtrim = /^[\s\uFEFF\xA0]+|[\s\uFEFF\xA0]+$/g; String.prototype.trim = function() { return this.replace(rtrim, ''); }; })(); }
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There are two possible solutions to add new properties to an object. Let's take a simple object to explain these solutions.
var object = { key1: value1, key2: value2 };
- Using dot notation: This solution is useful when you know the name of the property
object.key3 = "value3";
- Using square bracket notation: This solution is useful when the name of the property is dynamically determined.
obj["key3"] = "value3";
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No,that's not a special operator. But it is a combination of 2 standard operators one after the other,
- A logical not (!)
- A prefix decrement (--)
At first, the value decremented by one and then tested to see if it is equal to zero or not for determining the truthy/falsy value.
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You can use the logical or operator
||in an assignment expression to provide a default value. The syntax looks like as below,var a = b || c;
As per the above expression, variable 'a 'will get the value of 'c' only if 'b' is falsy (if is null, false, undefined, 0, empty string, or NaN), otherwise 'a' will get the value of 'b'.
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You can define multiline string literals using the '\' character followed by line terminator.
var str = "This is a \ very lengthy \ sentence!";
But if you have a space after the '\' character, the code will look exactly the same, but it will raise a SyntaxError.
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An application shell (or app shell) architecture is one way to build a Progressive Web App that reliably and instantly loads on your users' screens, similar to what you see in native applications. It is useful for getting some initial HTML to the screen fast without a network.
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Yes, We can define properties for functions because functions are also objects.
fn = function(x) { //Function code goes here } fn.name = "John"; fn.profile = function(y) { //Profile code goes here }
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You can use
function.lengthsyntax to find the number of parameters expected by a function. Let's take an example ofsumfunction to calculate the sum of numbers,function sum(num1, num2, num3, num4){ return num1 + num2 + num3 + num4; } sum.length // 4 is the number of parameters expected.
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A polyfill is a piece of JS code used to provide modern functionality on older browsers that do not natively support it. For example, Silverlight plugin polyfill can be used to mimic the functionality of an HTML Canvas element on Microsoft Internet Explorer 7.
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The break statement is used to "jump out" of a loop. i.e, It breaks the loop and continues executing the code after the loop.
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) { if (i === 5) { break; } text += "Number: " + i + "<br>"; }
The continue statement is used to "jump over" one iteration in the loop. i.e, It breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified condition occurs, and continues with the next iteration in the loop.
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) { if (i === 5) { continue; } text += "Number: " + i + "<br>"; }
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The label statement allows us to name loops and blocks in JavaScript. We can then use these labels to refer back to the code later. For example, the below code with labels avoids printing the numbers when they are same,
var i, j; loop1: for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) { loop2: for (j = 0; j < 3; j++) { if (i === j) { continue loop1; } console.log('i = ' + i + ', j = ' + j); } } // Output is: // "i = 1, j = 0" // "i = 2, j = 0" // "i = 2, j = 1"
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It is recommended to keep all declarations at the top of each script or function. The benefits of doing this are,
- Gives cleaner code
- It provides a single place to look for local variables
- Easy to avoid unwanted global variables
- It reduces the possibility of unwanted re-declarations
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It is recommended to initialize variables because of the below benefits,
- It gives cleaner code
- It provides a single place to initialize variables
- Avoid undefined values in the code
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It is recommended to avoid creating new objects using
new Object(). Instead you can initialize values based on it's type to create the objects.- Assign {} instead of new Object()
- Assign "" instead of new String()
- Assign 0 instead of new Number()
- Assign false instead of new Boolean()
- Assign [] instead of new Array()
- Assign /()/ instead of new RegExp()
- Assign function (){} instead of new Function()
You can define them as an example,
var v1 = {}; var v2 = ""; var v3 = 0; var v4 = false; var v5 = []; var v6 = /()/; var v7 = function(){};
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JSON arrays are written inside square brackets and arrays contain javascript objects. For example, the JSON array of users would be as below,
"users":[ {"firstName":"John", "lastName":"Abrahm"}, {"firstName":"Anna", "lastName":"Smith"}, {"firstName":"Shane", "lastName":"Warn"} ]
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You can use Math.random() with Math.floor() to return random integers. For example, if you want generate random integers between 1 to 10, the multiplication factor should be 10,
Math.floor(Math.random() * 10) + 1; // returns a random integer from 1 to 10 Math.floor(Math.random() * 100) + 1; // returns a random integer from 1 to 100
Note: Math.random() returns a random number between 0 (inclusive), and 1 (exclusive)
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Yes, you can create a proper random function to return a random number between min and max (both included)
function randomInteger(min, max) { return Math.floor(Math.random() * (max - min + 1) ) + min; } randomInteger(1, 100); // returns a random integer from 1 to 100 randomInteger(1, 1000); // returns a random integer from 1 to 1000
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Tree shaking is a form of dead code elimination. It means that unused modules will not be included in the bundle during the build process and for that it relies on the static structure of ES2015 module syntax,( i.e. import and export). Initially this has been popularized by the ES2015 module bundler
rollup. -
Tree Shaking can significantly reduce the code size in any application. i.e, The less code we send over the wire the more performant the application will be. For example, if we just want to create a “Hello World” Application using SPA frameworks then it will take around a few MBs, but by tree shaking it can bring down the size to just a few hundred KBs. Tree shaking is implemented in Rollup and Webpack bundlers.
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No, it allows arbitrary code to be run which causes a security problem. As we know that the eval() function is used to run text as code. In most of the cases, it should not be necessary to use it.
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A regular expression is a sequence of characters that forms a search pattern. You can use this search pattern for searching data in a text. These can be used to perform all types of text search and text replace operations. Let's see the syntax format now,
/pattern/modifiers;
For example, the regular expression or search pattern with case-insensitive username would be,
/John/i -
Regular Expressions has two string methods: search() and replace(). The search() method uses an expression to search for a match, and returns the position of the match.
var msg = "Hello John"; var n = msg.search(/John/i); // 6
The replace() method is used to return a modified string where the pattern is replaced.
var msg = "Hello John"; var n = msg.replace(/John/i, "Buttler"); // Hello Buttler
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Modifiers can be used to perform case-insensitive and global searches. Let's list down some of the modifiers,
Modifier Description i Perform case-insensitive matching g Perform a global match rather than stops at first match m Perform multiline matching Let's take an example of global modifier,
var text = "Learn JS one by one"; var pattern = /one/g; var result = text.match(pattern); // one,one
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Regular Expressions provide a group of patterns in order to match characters. Basically they are categorized into 3 types,
- Brackets: These are used to find a range of characters.
For example, below are some use cases,
- [abc]: Used to find any of the characters between the brackets(a,b,c)
- [0-9]: Used to find any of the digits between the brackets
- (a|b): Used to find any of the alternatives separated with |
- Metacharacters: These are characters with a special meaning
For example, below are some use cases,
- \d: Used to find a digit
- \s: Used to find a whitespace character
- \b: Used to find a match at the beginning or ending of a word
- Quantifiers: These are useful to define quantities
For example, below are some use cases,
- n+: Used to find matches for any string that contains at least one n
- n*: Used to find matches for any string that contains zero or more occurrences of n
- n?: Used to find matches for any string that contains zero or one occurrences of n
- Brackets: These are used to find a range of characters.
For example, below are some use cases,
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RegExp object is a regular expression object with predefined properties and methods. Let's see the simple usage of RegExp object,
var regexp = new RegExp('\\w+'); console.log(regexp); // expected output: /\w+/
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You can use the test() method of regular expression in order to search a string for a pattern, and return true or false depending on the result.
var pattern = /you/; console.log(pattern.test("How are you?")); //true
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The purpose of exec method is similar to test method but it executes a search for a match in a specified string and returns a result array, or null instead of returning true/false.
var pattern = /you/; console.log(pattern.exec("How are you?")); //["you", index: 8, input: "How are you?", groups: undefined]
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You can change inline style or classname of a HTML element using javascript
- Using style property: You can modify inline style using style property
document.getElementById("title").style.fontSize = "30px";
- Using ClassName property: It is easy to modify element class using className property
document.getElementById("title").className = "custom-title";
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The output is going to be
33. Since1and2are numeric values, the result of the first two digits is going to be a numeric value3. The next digit is a string type value because of that the addition of numeric value3and string type value3is just going to be a concatenation value33. -
The debugger statement invokes any available debugging functionality, such as setting a breakpoint. If no debugging functionality is available, this statement has no effect. For example, in the below function a debugger statement has been inserted. So execution is paused at the debugger statement just like a breakpoint in the script source.
function getProfile() { // code goes here debugger; // code goes here }
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You can set breakpoints in the javascript code once the debugger statement is executed and the debugger window pops up. At each breakpoint, javascript will stop executing, and let you examine the JavaScript values. After examining values, you can resume the execution of code using the play button.
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No, you cannot use the reserved words as variables, labels, object or function names. Let's see one simple example,
var else = "hello"; // Uncaught SyntaxError: Unexpected token else
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You can use regex which returns a true or false value depending on whether or not the user is browsing with a mobile.
window.mobilecheck = function() { var mobileCheck = false; (function(a){if(/(android|bb\d+|meego).+mobile|avantgo|bada\/|blackberry|blazer|compal|elaine|fennec|hiptop|iemobile|ip(hone|od)|iris|kindle|lge |maemo|midp|mmp|mobile.+firefox|netfront|opera m(ob|in)i|palm( os)?|phone|p(ixi|re)\/|plucker|pocket|psp|series(4|6)0|symbian|treo|up\.(browser|link)|vodafone|wap|windows ce|xda|xiino/i.test(a)||/1207|6310|6590|3gso|4thp|50[1-6]i|770s|802s|a wa|abac|ac(er|oo|s\-)|ai(ko|rn)|al(av|ca|co)|amoi|an(ex|ny|yw)|aptu|ar(ch|go)|as(te|us)|attw|au(di|\-m|r |s )|avan|be(ck|ll|nq)|bi(lb|rd)|bl(ac|az)|br(e|v)w|bumb|bw\-(n|u)|c55\/|capi|ccwa|cdm\-|cell|chtm|cldc|cmd\-|co(mp|nd)|craw|da(it|ll|ng)|dbte|dc\-s|devi|dica|dmob|do(c|p)o|ds(12|\-d)|el(49|ai)|em(l2|ul)|er(ic|k0)|esl8|ez([4-7]0|os|wa|ze)|fetc|fly(\-|_)|g1 u|g560|gene|gf\-5|g\-mo|go(\.w|od)|gr(ad|un)|haie|hcit|hd\-(m|p|t)|hei\-|hi(pt|ta)|hp( i|ip)|hs\-c|ht(c(\-| |_|a|g|p|s|t)|tp)|hu(aw|tc)|i\-(20|go|ma)|i230|iac( |\-|\/)|ibro|idea|ig01|ikom|im1k|inno|ipaq|iris|ja(t|v)a|jbro|jemu|jigs|kddi|keji|kgt( |\/)|klon|kpt |kwc\-|kyo(c|k)|le(no|xi)|lg( g|\/(k|l|u)|50|54|\-[a-w])|libw|lynx|m1\-w|m3ga|m50\/|ma(te|ui|xo)|mc(01|21|ca)|m\-cr|me(rc|ri)|mi(o8|oa|ts)|mmef|mo(01|02|bi|de|do|t(\-| |o|v)|zz)|mt(50|p1|v )|mwbp|mywa|n10[0-2]|n20[2-3]|n30(0|2)|n50(0|2|5)|n7(0(0|1)|10)|ne((c|m)\-|on|tf|wf|wg|wt)|nok(6|i)|nzph|o2im|op(ti|wv)|oran|owg1|p800|pan(a|d|t)|pdxg|pg(13|\-([1-8]|c))|phil|pire|pl(ay|uc)|pn\-2|po(ck|rt|se)|prox|psio|pt\-g|qa\-a|qc(07|12|21|32|60|\-[2-7]|i\-)|qtek|r380|r600|raks|rim9|ro(ve|zo)|s55\/|sa(ge|ma|mm|ms|ny|va)|sc(01|h\-|oo|p\-)|sdk\/|se(c(\-|0|1)|47|mc|nd|ri)|sgh\-|shar|sie(\-|m)|sk\-0|sl(45|id)|sm(al|ar|b3|it|t5)|so(ft|ny)|sp(01|h\-|v\-|v )|sy(01|mb)|t2(18|50)|t6(00|10|18)|ta(gt|lk)|tcl\-|tdg\-|tel(i|m)|tim\-|t\-mo|to(pl|sh)|ts(70|m\-|m3|m5)|tx\-9|up(\.b|g1|si)|utst|v400|v750|veri|vi(rg|te)|vk(40|5[0-3]|\-v)|vm40|voda|vulc|vx(52|53|60|61|70|80|81|83|85|98)|w3c(\-| )|webc|whit|wi(g |nc|nw)|wmlb|wonu|x700|yas\-|your|zeto|zte\-/i.test(a.substr(0,4))) mobileCheck = true;})(navigator.userAgent||navigator.vendor||window.opera); return mobileCheck; };
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You can detect mobile browsers by simply running through a list of devices and checking if the useragent matches anything. This is an alternative solution for RegExp usage,
function detectmob() { if( navigator.userAgent.match(/Android/i) || navigator.userAgent.match(/webOS/i) || navigator.userAgent.match(/iPhone/i) || navigator.userAgent.match(/iPad/i) || navigator.userAgent.match(/iPod/i) || navigator.userAgent.match(/BlackBerry/i) || navigator.userAgent.match(/Windows Phone/i) ){ return true; } else { return false; } }
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You can programmatically get the image and check the dimensions(width and height) using Javascript.
var img = new Image(); img.onload = function() { console.log(this.width + 'x' + this.height); } img.src = 'http://www.google.com/intl/en_ALL/images/logo.gif';
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Browsers provide an XMLHttpRequest object which can be used to make synchronous HTTP requests from JavaScript
function httpGet(theUrl) { var xmlHttpReq = new XMLHttpRequest(); xmlHttpReq.open( "GET", theUrl, false ); // false for synchronous request xmlHttpReq.send( null ); return xmlHttpReq.responseText; }
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Browsers provide an XMLHttpRequest object which can be used to make asynchronous HTTP requests from JavaScript by passing the 3rd parameter as true.
function httpGetAsync(theUrl, callback) { var xmlHttpReq = new XMLHttpRequest(); xmlHttpReq.onreadystatechange = function() { if (xmlHttpReq.readyState == 4 && xmlHttpReq.status == 200) callback(xmlHttpReq.responseText); } xmlHttp.open("GET", theUrl, true); // true for asynchronous xmlHttp.send(null); }
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You can use the toLocaleString() method to convert dates in one timezone to another. For example, let's convert current date to British English timezone as below,
console.log(event.toLocaleString('en-GB', { timeZone: 'UTC' })); //29/06/2019, 09:56:00
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You can use innerWidth, innerHeight, clientWidth, clientHeight properties of windows, document element and document body objects to find the size of a window. Let's use them combination of these properties to calculate the size of a window or document,
var width = window.innerWidth || document.documentElement.clientWidth || document.body.clientWidth; var height = window.innerHeight || document.documentElement.clientHeight || document.body.clientHeight;
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The conditional (ternary) operator is the only JavaScript operator that takes three operands which acts as a shortcut for if statements.
var isAuthenticated = false; console.log(isAuthenticated ? 'Hello, welcome' : 'Sorry, you are not authenticated'); //Sorry, you are not authenticated
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Yes, you can apply chaining on conditional operators similar to if … else if … else if … else chain. The syntax is going to be as below,
function traceValue(someParam) { return condition1 ? value1 : condition2 ? value2 : condition3 ? value3 : value4; } // The above conditional operator is equivalent to: function traceValue(someParam) { if (condition1) { return value1; } else if (condition2) { return value2; } else if (condition3) { return value3; } else { return value4; } }
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You can execute javascript after page load in many different ways,
- window.onload:
window.onload = function ...
- document.onload:
document.onload = function ...
- body onload:
<body onload="script();">
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The
__proto__object is the actual object that is used in the lookup chain to resolve methods, etc. Whereasprototypeis the object that is used to build__proto__when you create an object with new( new Employee ).__proto__ === Employee.prototype; ( new Employee ).prototype === undefined;
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It is recommended to use semicolons after every statement in JavaScript. For example, in the below case it throws an error ".. is not a function" at runtime due to missing semicolon.
// define a function var fn = function () { //... } // semicolon missing at this line // then execute some code inside a closure (function () { //... })();
and it will be interpreted as
var fn = function () { //... }(function () { //... })();
In this case, we are passing the second function as an argument to the first function and then trying to call the result of the first function call as a function. Hence, the second function will fail with a "... is not a function" error at runtime.
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The freeze() method is used to freeze an object. Freezing an object does not allow adding new properties to an object,prevents from removing and prevents changing the enumerability, configurability, or writability of existing properties. i.e, It returns the passed object and does not create a frozen copy.
const obj = { prop: 100 }; Object.freeze(obj); obj.prop = 200; // Throws an error in strict mode console.log(obj.prop); //100
Note: It causes a TypeError if the argument passed is not an object.
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Below are the main benefits of using freeze method,
- It is used for freezing objects and arrays.
- It is used to make an object immutable.
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In the Object-oriented paradigm, an existing API contains certain elements that are not intended to be extended, modified, or re-used outside of their current context. Hence it works as the
finalkeyword which is used in various languages. -
You can use navigator object to detect a browser language preference as below,
var language = navigator.languages && navigator.languages[0] || // Chrome / Firefox navigator.language || // All browsers navigator.userLanguage; // IE <= 10 console.log(language);
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Title case means that the first letter of each word is capitalized. You can convert a string to title case using the below function,
function toTitleCase(str) { return str.replace( /\w\S*/g, function(txt) { return txt.charAt(0).toUpperCase() + txt.substr(1).toLowerCase(); } ); } toTitleCase("good morning john"); // Good Morning John
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You can use the
<noscript>tag to detect javascript disabled or not. The code block inside<noscript>gets executed when JavaScript is disabled, and is typically used to display alternative content when the page generated in JavaScript.<script type="javascript"> // JS related code goes here </script> <noscript> <a href="next_page.html?noJS=true">JavaScript is disabled in the page. Please click Next Page</a> </noscript>
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An operator is capable of manipulating(mathematical and logical computations) a certain value or operand. There are various operators supported by JavaScript as below,
- Arithmetic Operators: Includes + (Addition),– (Subtraction), * (Multiplication), / (Division), % (Modulus), + + (Increment) and – – (Decrement)
- Comparison Operators: Includes = =(Equal),!= (Not Equal), ===(Equal with type), > (Greater than),> = (Greater than or Equal to),< (Less than),<= (Less than or Equal to)
- Logical Operators: Includes &&(Logical AND),||(Logical OR),!(Logical NOT)
- Assignment Operators: Includes = (Assignment Operator), += (Add and Assignment Operator), – = (Subtract and Assignment Operator), *= (Multiply and Assignment), /= (Divide and Assignment), %= (Modules and Assignment)
- Ternary Operators: It includes conditional(: ?) Operator
- typeof Operator: It uses to find type of variable. The syntax looks like
typeof variable
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Rest parameter is an improved way to handle function parameters which allows us to represent an indefinite number of arguments as an array. The syntax would be as below,
function f(a, b, ...theArgs) { // ... }
For example, let's take a sum example to calculate on dynamic number of parameters,
function total(…args){ let sum = 0; for(let i of args){ sum+=i; } return sum; } console.log(fun(1,2)); //3 console.log(fun(1,2,3)); //6 console.log(fun(1,2,3,4)); //13 console.log(fun(1,2,3,4,5)); //15
Note: Rest parameter is added in ES2015 or ES6
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The rest parameter should be the last argument, as its job is to collect all the remaining arguments into an array. For example, if you define a function like below it doesn’t make any sense and will throw an error.
function someFunc(a,…b,c){ //You code goes here return; }
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Below are the list of bitwise logical operators used in JavaScript
- Bitwise AND ( & )
- Bitwise OR ( | )
- Bitwise XOR ( ^ )
- Bitwise NOT ( ~ )
- Left Shift ( << )
- Sign Propagating Right Shift ( >> )
- Zero fill Right Shift ( >>> )
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Spread operator allows iterables( arrays / objects / strings ) to be expanded into single arguments/elements. Let's take an example to see this behavior,
function calculateSum(x, y, z) { return x + y + z; } const numbers = [1, 2, 3]; console.log(calculateSum(...numbers)); // 6
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Object.isFrozen() method is used to determine if an object is frozen or not.An object is frozen if all of the below conditions hold true,
- If it is not extensible.
- If all of its properties are non-configurable.
- If all its data properties are non-writable. The usage is going to be as follows,
const object = { property: 'Welcome JS world' }; Object.freeze(object); console.log(Object.isFrozen(object));
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The Object.is() method determines whether two values are the same value. For example, the usage with different types of values would be,
Object.is('hello', 'hello'); // true Object.is(window, window); // true Object.is([], []) // false
Two values are the same if one of the following holds:
- both undefined
- both null
- both true or both false
- both strings of the same length with the same characters in the same order
- both the same object (means both object have same reference)
- both numbers and both +0 both -0 both NaN both non-zero and both not NaN and both have the same value.
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Some of the applications of Object's
ismethod are follows,- It is used for comparison of two strings.
- It is used for comparison of two numbers.
- It is used for comparing the polarity of two numbers.
- It is used for comparison of two objects.
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You can use the Object.assign() method which is used to copy the values and properties from one or more source objects to a target object. It returns the target object which has properties and values copied from the target object. The syntax would be as below,
Object.assign(target, ...sources)
Let's take example with one source and one target object,
const target = { a: 1, b: 2 }; const source = { b: 3, c: 4 }; const returnedTarget = Object.assign(target, source); console.log(target); // { a: 1, b: 3, c: 4 } console.log(returnedTarget); // { a: 1, b: 3, c: 4 }
As observed in the above code, there is a common property(
b) from source to target so it's value has been overwritten. -
Below are the some of main applications of Object.assign() method,
- It is used for cloning an object.
- It is used to merge objects with the same properties.
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The Proxy object is used to define custom behavior for fundamental operations such as property lookup, assignment, enumeration, function invocation, etc. The syntax would be as follows,
var p = new Proxy(target, handler);
Let's take an example of proxy object,
var handler = { get: function(obj, prop) { return prop in obj ? obj[prop] : 100; } }; var p = new Proxy({}, handler); p.a = 10; p.b = null; console.log(p.a, p.b); // 10, null console.log('c' in p, p.c); // false, 100
In the above code, it uses
gethandler which define the behavior of the proxy when an operation is performed on it -
The Object.seal() method is used to seal an object, by preventing new properties from being added to it and marking all existing properties as non-configurable. But values of present properties can still be changed as long as they are writable. Let's see the below example to understand more about seal() method
const object = { property: 'Welcome JS world' }; Object.seal(object); object.property = 'Welcome to object world'; console.log(Object.isSealed(object)); // true delete object.property; // You cannot delete when sealed console.log(object.property); //Welcome to object world
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Below are the main applications of Object.seal() method,
- It is used for sealing objects and arrays.
- It is used to make an object immutable.
-
If an object is frozen using the Object.freeze() method then its properties become immutable and no changes can be made in them whereas if an object is sealed using the Object.seal() method then the changes can be made in the existing properties of the object.
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The Object.isSealed() method is used to determine if an object is sealed or not. An object is sealed if all of the below conditions hold true
- If it is not extensible.
- If all of its properties are non-configurable.
- If it is not removable (but not necessarily non-writable). Let's see it in the action
const object = { property: 'Hello, Good morning' }; Object.seal(object); // Using seal() method to seal the object console.log(Object.isSealed(object)); // checking whether the object is sealed or not
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The Object.entries() method is used to return an array of a given object's own enumerable string-keyed property [key, value] pairs, in the same order as that provided by a for...in loop. Let's see the functionality of object.entries() method in an example,
const object = { a: 'Good morning', b: 100 }; for (let [key, value] of Object.entries(object)) { console.log(`${key}: ${value}`); // a: 'Good morning' // b: 100 }
Note: The order is not guaranteed as object defined.
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The Object.values() method's behavior is similar to Object.entries() method but it returns an array of values instead [key,value] pairs.
const object = { a: 'Good morning', b: 100 }; for (let value of Object.values(object)) { console.log(`${value}`); // 'Good morning' 100 }
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You can use the
Object.keys()method which is used to return an array of a given object's own property names, in the same order as we get with a normal loop. For example, you can get the keys of a user object,const user = { name: 'John', gender: 'male', age: 40 }; console.log(Object.keys(user)); //['name', 'gender', 'age']
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The Object.create() method is used to create a new object with the specified prototype object and properties. i.e, It uses an existing object as the prototype of the newly created object. It returns a new object with the specified prototype object and properties.
const user = { name: 'John', printInfo: function () { console.log(`My name is ${this.name}.`); } }; const admin = Object.create(user); admin.name = "Nick"; // Remember that "name" is a property set on "admin" but not on "user" object admin.printInfo(); // My name is Nick
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WeakSet is used to store a collection of weakly(weak references) held objects. The syntax would be as follows,
new WeakSet([iterable]);
Let's see the below example to explain it's behavior,
var ws = new WeakSet(); var user = {}; ws.add(user); ws.has(user); // true ws.delete(user); // removes user from the set ws.has(user); // false, user has been removed
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The main difference is that references to objects in Set are strong while references to objects in WeakSet are weak. i.e, An object in WeakSet can be garbage collected if there is no other reference to it. Other differences are,
- Sets can store any value Whereas WeakSets can store only collections of objects
- WeakSet does not have size property unlike Set
- WeakSet does not have methods such as clear, keys, values, entries, forEach.
- WeakSet is not iterable.
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Below are the list of methods available on WeakSet,
- add(value): A new object is appended with the given value to the weakset
- delete(value): Deletes the value from the WeakSet collection.
- has(value): It returns true if the value is present in the WeakSet Collection, otherwise it returns false.
Let's see the functionality of all the above methods in an example,
var weakSetObject = new WeakSet(); var firstObject = {}; var secondObject = {}; // add(value) weakSetObject.add(firstObject); weakSetObject.add(secondObject); console.log(weakSetObject.has(firstObject)); //true weakSetObject.delete(secondObject);
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The WeakMap object is a collection of key/value pairs in which the keys are weakly referenced. In this case, keys must be objects and the values can be arbitrary values. The syntax is looking like as below,
new WeakMap([iterable])
Let's see the below example to explain it's behavior,
var ws = new WeakMap(); var user = {}; ws.set(user); ws.has(user); // true ws.delete(user); // removes user from the map ws.has(user); // false, user has been removed
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The main difference is that references to key objects in Map are strong while references to key objects in WeakMap are weak. i.e, A key object in WeakMap can be garbage collected if there is no other reference to it. Other differences are,
- Maps can store any key type Whereas WeakMaps can store only collections of key objects
- WeakMap does not have size property unlike Map
- WeakMap does not have methods such as clear, keys, values, entries, forEach.
- WeakMap is not iterable.
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Below are the list of methods available on WeakMap,
- set(key, value): Sets the value for the key in the WeakMap object. Returns the WeakMap object.
- delete(key): Removes any value associated to the key.
- has(key): Returns a Boolean asserting whether a value has been associated to the key in the WeakMap object or not.
- get(key): Returns the value associated to the key, or undefined if there is none. Let's see the functionality of all the above methods in an example,
var weakMapObject = new WeakMap(); var firstObject = {}; var secondObject = {}; // set(key, value) weakMapObject.set(firstObject, 'John'); weakMapObject.set(secondObject, 100); console.log(weakMapObject.has(firstObject)); //true console.log(weakMapObject.get(firstObject)); // John weakMapObject.delete(secondObject);
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The uneval() is an inbuilt function which is used to create a string representation of the source code of an Object. It is a top-level function and is not associated with any object. Let's see the below example to know more about it's functionality,
var a = 1; uneval(a); // returns a String containing 1 uneval(function user() {}); // returns "(function user(){})"
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The encodeURI() function is used to encode complete URI which has special characters except (, / ? : @ & = + $ #) characters.
var uri = 'https://mozilla.org/?x=шеллы'; var encoded = encodeURI(uri); console.log(encoded); // https://mozilla.org/?x=%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8B
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The decodeURI() function is used to decode a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) previously created by encodeURI().
var uri = 'https://mozilla.org/?x=шеллы'; var encoded = encodeURI(uri); console.log(encoded); // https://mozilla.org/?x=%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8B try { console.log(decodeURI(encoded)); // "https://mozilla.org/?x=шеллы" } catch(e) { // catches a malformed URI console.error(e); }
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The window object provided a print() method which is used to print the contents of the current window. It opens a Print dialog box which lets you choose between various printing options. Let's see the usage of print method in an example,
<input type="button" value="Print" onclick="window.print()" />
Note: In most browsers, it will block while the print dialog is open.
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The
unevalfunction returns the source of a given object; whereas theevalfunction does the opposite, by evaluating that source code in a different memory area. Let's see an example to clarify the difference,var msg = uneval(function greeting() { return 'Hello, Good morning'; }); var greeting = eval(msg); greeting(); // returns "Hello, Good morning"
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An anonymous function is a function without a name! Anonymous functions are commonly assigned to a variable name or used as a callback function. The syntax would be as below,
function (optionalParameters) { //do something } const myFunction = function(){ //Anonymous function assigned to a variable //do something }; [1, 2, 3].map(function(element){ //Anonymous function used as a callback function //do something });
Let's see the above anonymous function in an example,
var x = function (a, b) {return a * b}; var z = x(5, 10); console.log(z); // 50
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A local variable takes precedence over a global variable with the same name. Let's see this behavior in an example.
var msg = "Good morning"; function greeting() { msg = "Good Evening"; console.log(msg); } greeting();
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ECMAScript 5 introduced javascript object accessors or computed properties through getters and setters. Getters uses the
getkeyword whereas Setters uses thesetkeyword.var user = { firstName: "John", lastName : "Abraham", language : "en", get lang() { return this.language; } set lang(lang) { this.language = lang; } }; console.log(user.lang); // getter access lang as en user.lang = 'fr'; console.log(user.lang); // setter used to set lang as fr
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The Object.defineProperty() static method is used to define a new property directly on an object, or modify an existing property on an object, and returns the object. Let's see an example to know how to define property,
const newObject = {}; Object.defineProperty(newObject, 'newProperty', { value: 100, writable: false }); console.log(newObject.newProperty); // 100 newObject.newProperty = 200; // It throws an error in strict mode due to writable setting
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Both have similar results until unless you use classes. If you use
getthe property will be defined on the prototype of the object whereas usingObject.defineProperty()the property will be defined on the instance it is applied to. -
Below are the list of benefits of Getters and Setters,
- They provide simpler syntax
- They are used for defining computed properties, or accessors in JS.
- Useful to provide equivalence relation between properties and methods
- They can provide better data quality
- Useful for doing things behind the scenes with the encapsulated logic.
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Yes, You can use the
Object.defineProperty()method to add Getters and Setters. For example, the below counter object uses increment, decrement, add and subtract properties,var obj = {counter : 0}; // Define getters Object.defineProperty(obj, "increment", { get : function () {this.counter++;} }); Object.defineProperty(obj, "decrement", { get : function () {this.counter--;} }); // Define setters Object.defineProperty(obj, "add", { set : function (value) {this.counter += value;} }); Object.defineProperty(obj, "subtract", { set : function (value) {this.counter -= value;} }); obj.add = 10; obj.subtract = 5; console.log(obj.increment); //6 console.log(obj.decrement); //5
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The switch case statement in JavaScript is used for decision making purposes. In a few cases, using the switch case statement is going to be more convenient than if-else statements. The syntax would be as below,
switch (expression) { case value1: statement1; break; case value2: statement2; break; . . case valueN: statementN; break; default: statementDefault; }
The above multi-way branch statement provides an easy way to dispatch execution to different parts of code based on the value of the expression.
-
Below are the list of conventions should be taken care,
- The expression can be of type either number or string.
- Duplicate values are not allowed for the expression.
- The default statement is optional. If the expression passed to switch does not match with any case value then the statement within default case will be executed.
- The break statement is used inside the switch to terminate a statement sequence.
- The break statement is optional. But if it is omitted, the execution will continue on into the next case.
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A primitive data type is data that has a primitive value (which has no properties or methods). There are 7 types of primitive data types.
- string
- number
- boolean
- null
- undefined
- bigint
- symbol
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There are 3 possible ways for accessing the property of an object.
- Dot notation: It uses dot for accessing the properties
objectName.property
- Square brackets notation: It uses square brackets for property access
objectName["property"]
- Expression notation: It uses expression in the square brackets
objectName[expression]
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JavaScript functions follow below rules for parameters,
- The function definitions do not specify data types for parameters.
- Do not perform type checking on the passed arguments.
- Do not check the number of arguments received. i.e, The below function follows the above rules,
function functionName(parameter1, parameter2, parameter3) { console.log(parameter1); // 1 } functionName(1);
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An error object is a built in error object that provides error information when an error occurs. It has two properties: name and message. For example, the below function logs error details,
try { greeting("Welcome"); } catch(err) { console.log(err.name + "<br>" + err.message); }
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A SyntaxError is thrown if you try to evaluate code with a syntax error. For example, the below missing quote for the function parameter throws a syntax error
try { eval("greeting('welcome)"); // Missing ' will produce an error } catch(err) { console.log(err.name); }
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There are 6 different types of error names returned from error object,
Error Name Description EvalError An error has occurred in the eval() function RangeError An error has occurred with a number "out of range" ReferenceError An error due to an illegal reference SyntaxError An error due to a syntax error TypeError An error due to a type error URIError An error due to encodeURI() -
Below are the list of statements used in an error handling,
- try: This statement is used to test a block of code for errors
- catch: This statement is used to handle the error
- throw: This statement is used to create custom errors.
- finally: This statement is used to execute code after try and catch regardless of the result.
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- Entry Controlled loops: In this kind of loop type, the test condition is tested before entering the loop body. For example, For Loop and While Loop comes under this category.
- Exit Controlled Loops: In this kind of loop type, the test condition is tested or evaluated at the end of the loop body. i.e, the loop body will execute at least once irrespective of test condition true or false. For example, do-while loop comes under this category.
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Node.js is a server-side platform built on Chrome's JavaScript runtime for easily building fast and scalable network applications. It is an event-based, non-blocking, asynchronous I/O runtime that uses Google's V8 JavaScript engine and libuv library.
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The Intl object is the namespace for the ECMAScript Internationalization API, which provides language sensitive string comparison, number formatting, and date and time formatting. It provides access to several constructors and language sensitive functions.
-
You can use the
Intl.DateTimeFormatobject which is a constructor for objects that enable language-sensitive date and time formatting. Let's see this behavior with an example,var date = new Date(Date.UTC(2019, 07, 07, 3, 0, 0)); console.log(new Intl.DateTimeFormat('en-GB').format(date)); // 07/08/2019 console.log(new Intl.DateTimeFormat('en-AU').format(date)); // 07/08/2019
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An iterator is an object which defines a sequence and a return value upon its termination. It implements the Iterator protocol with a
next()method which returns an object with two properties:value(the next value in the sequence) anddone(which is true if the last value in the sequence has been consumed). -
Synchronous iteration was introduced in ES6 and it works with below set of components,
Iterable: It is an object which can be iterated over via a method whose key is Symbol.iterator. Iterator: It is an object returned by invoking
[Symbol.iterator]()on an iterable. This iterator object wraps each iterated element in an object and returns it vianext()method one by one. IteratorResult: It is an object returned bynext()method. The object contains two properties; thevalueproperty contains an iterated element and thedoneproperty determines whether the element is the last element or not.Let's demonstrate synchronous iteration with an array as below,
const iterable = ['one', 'two', 'three']; const iterator = iterable[Symbol.iterator](); console.log(iterator.next()); // { value: 'one', done: false } console.log(iterator.next()); // { value: 'two', done: false } console.log(iterator.next()); // { value: 'three', done: false } console.log(iterator.next()); // { value: 'undefined, done: true }
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The Event Loop is a queue of callback functions. When an async function executes, the callback function is pushed into the queue. The JavaScript engine doesn't start processing the event loop until the async function has finished executing the code. Note: It allows Node.js to perform non-blocking I/O operations even though JavaScript is single-threaded.
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Call Stack is a data structure for javascript interpreters to keep track of function calls in the program. It has two major actions,
- Whenever you call a function for its execution, you are pushing it to the stack.
- Whenever the execution is completed, the function is popped out of the stack.
Let's take an example and it's state representation in a diagram format
function hungry() { eatFruits(); } function eatFruits() { return "I'm eating fruits"; } // Invoke the `hungry` function hungry();
The above code processed in a call stack as below,
- Add the
hungry()function to the call stack list and execute the code. - Add the
eatFruits()function to the call stack list and execute the code. - Delete the
eatFruits()function from our call stack list. - Delete the
hungry()function from the call stack list since there are no items anymore.
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A decorator is an expression that evaluates to a function and that takes the target, name, and decorator descriptor as arguments. Also, it optionally returns a decorator descriptor to install on the target object. Let's define admin decorator for user class at design time,
function admin(isAdmin) { return function(target) { target.isAdmin = isAdmin; } } @admin(true) class User() { } console.log(User.isAdmin); //true @admin(false) class User() { } console.log(User.isAdmin); //false
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Below are the list of properties available on Intl object,
- Collator: These are the objects that enable language-sensitive string comparison.
- DateTimeFormat: These are the objects that enable language-sensitive date and time formatting.
- ListFormat: These are the objects that enable language-sensitive list formatting.
- NumberFormat: Objects that enable language-sensitive number formatting.
- PluralRules: Objects that enable plural-sensitive formatting and language-specific rules for plurals.
- RelativeTimeFormat: Objects that enable language-sensitive relative time formatting.
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The unary(+) operator is used to convert a variable to a number.If the variable cannot be converted, it will still become a number but with the value NaN. Let's see this behavior in an action.
var x = "100"; var y = + x; console.log(typeof x, typeof y); // string, number var a = "Hello"; var b = + a; console.log(typeof a, typeof b, b); // string, number, NaN
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The sort() method is used to sort the elements of an array in place and returns the sorted array. The example usage would be as below,
var months = ["Aug", "Sep", "Jan", "June"]; months.sort(); console.log(months); // ["Aug", "Jan", "June", "Sep"]
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The compareFunction is used to define the sort order. If omitted, the array elements are converted to strings, then sorted according to each character's Unicode code point value. Let's take an example to see the usage of compareFunction,
let numbers = [1, 2, 5, 3, 4]; numbers.sort((a, b) => b - a); console.log(numbers); // [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
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You can use the reverse() method to reverse the elements in an array. This method is useful to sort an array in descending order. Let's see the usage of reverse() method in an example,
let numbers = [1, 2, 5, 3, 4]; numbers.sort((a, b) => b - a); numbers.reverse(); console.log(numbers); // [1, 2, 3, 4 ,5]
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You can use
Math.minandMath.maxmethods on array variables to find the minimum and maximum elements within an array. Let's create two functions to find the min and max value with in an array,var marks = [50, 20, 70, 60, 45, 30]; function findMin(arr) { return Math.min.apply(null, arr); } function findMax(arr) { return Math.max.apply(null, arr); } console.log(findMin(marks)); console.log(findMax(marks));
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You can write functions which loop through an array comparing each value with the lowest value or highest value to find the min and max values. Let's create those functions to find min and max values,
var marks = [50, 20, 70, 60, 45, 30]; function findMin(arr) { var length = arr.length var min = Infinity; while (length--) { if (arr[length] < min) { min = arr[len]; } } return min; } function findMax(arr) { var length = arr.length var max = -Infinity; while (len--) { if (arr[length] > max) { max = arr[length]; } } return max; } console.log(findMin(marks)); console.log(findMax(marks));
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The empty statement is a semicolon (;) indicating that no statement will be executed, even if JavaScript syntax requires one. Since there is no action with an empty statement you might think that it's usage is quite less, but the empty statement is occasionally useful when you want to create a loop that has an empty body. For example, you can initialize an array with zero values as below,
// Initialize an array a for(int i=0; i < a.length; a[i++] = 0) ;
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You can use the
import.metaobject which is a meta-property exposing context-specific meta data to a JavaScript module. It contains information about the current module, such as the module's URL. In browsers, you might get different meta data than NodeJS.<script type="module" src="welcome-module.js"></script> console.log(import.meta); // { url: "file:///home/user/welcome-module.js" }
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The comma operator is used to evaluate each of its operands from left to right and returns the value of the last operand. This is totally different from comma usage within arrays, objects, and function arguments and parameters. For example, the usage for numeric expressions would be as below,
var x = 1; x = (x++, x); console.log(x); // 2
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It is normally used to include multiple expressions in a location that requires a single expression. One of the common usages of this comma operator is to supply multiple parameters in a
forloop. For example, the below for loop uses multiple expressions in a single location using comma operator,for (var a = 0, b =10; a <= 10; a++, b--)
You can also use the comma operator in a return statement where it processes before returning.
function myFunction() { var a = 1; return (a += 10, a); // 11 }
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TypeScript is a typed superset of JavaScript created by Microsoft that adds optional types, classes, async/await, and many other features, and compiles to plain JavaScript. Angular built entirely in TypeScript and used as a primary language. You can install it globally as
npm install -g typescript
Let's see a simple example of TypeScript usage,
function greeting(name: string): string { return "Hello, " + name; } let user = "Sudheer"; console.log(greeting(user));
The greeting method allows only string type as argument.
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Below are the list of differences between javascript and typescript,
feature typescript javascript Language paradigm Object oriented programming language Scripting language Typing support Supports static typing It has dynamic typing Modules Supported Not supported Interface It has interfaces concept Doesn't support interfaces Optional parameters Functions support optional parameters No support of optional parameters for functions -
Below are some of the advantages of typescript over javascript,
- TypeScript is able to find compile time errors at the development time only and it makes sures less runtime errors. Whereas javascript is an interpreted language.
- TypeScript is strongly-typed or supports static typing which allows for checking type correctness at compile time. This is not available in javascript.
- TypeScript compiler can compile the .ts files into ES3,ES4 and ES5 unlike ES6 features of javascript which may not be supported in some browsers.
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An object initializer is an expression that describes the initialization of an Object. The syntax for this expression is represented as a comma-delimited list of zero or more pairs of property names and associated values of an object, enclosed in curly braces ({}). This is also known as literal notation. It is one of the ways to create an object.
var initObject = {a: 'John', b: 50, c: {}}; console.log(initObject.a); // John
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The constructor method is a special method for creating and initializing an object created within a class. If you do not specify a constructor method, a default constructor is used. The example usage of constructor would be as below,
class Employee { constructor() { this.name = "John"; } } var employeeObject = new Employee(); console.log(employeeObject.name); // John
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The "constructor" in a class is a special method and it should be defined only once in a class. i.e, If you write a constructor method more than once in a class it will throw a
SyntaxErrorerror.class Employee { constructor() { this.name = "John"; } constructor() { // Uncaught SyntaxError: A class may only have one constructor this.age = 30; } } var employeeObject = new Employee(); console.log(employeeObject.name);
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You can use the
superkeyword to call the constructor of a parent class. Remember thatsuper()must be called before using 'this' reference. Otherwise it will cause a reference error. Let's the usage of it,class Square extends Rectangle { constructor(length) { super(length, length); this.name = 'Square'; } get area() { return this.width * this.height; } set area(value) { this.area = value; } }
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You can use the
Object.getPrototypeOf(obj)method to return the prototype of the specified object. i.e. The value of the internalprototypeproperty. If there are no inherited properties thennullvalue is returned.const newPrototype = {}; const newObject = Object.create(newPrototype); console.log(Object.getPrototypeOf(newObject) === newPrototype); // true
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In ES5, it will throw a TypeError exception if the obj parameter isn't an object. Whereas in ES2015, the parameter will be coerced to an
Object.// ES5 Object.getPrototypeOf('James'); // TypeError: "James" is not an object // ES2015 Object.getPrototypeOf('James'); // String.prototype
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You can use the
Object.setPrototypeOf()method that sets the prototype (i.e., the internalPrototypeproperty) of a specified object to another object or null. For example, if you want to set prototype of a square object to rectangle object would be as follows,Object.setPrototypeOf(Square.prototype, Rectangle.prototype); Object.setPrototypeOf({}, null);
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The
Object.isExtensible()method is used to determine if an object is extendable or not. i.e, Whether it can have new properties added to it or not.const newObject = {}; console.log(Object.isExtensible(newObject)); //true
Note: By default, all the objects are extendable. i.e, The new properties can be added or modified.
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The
Object.preventExtensions()method is used to prevent new properties from ever being added to an object. In other words, it prevents future extensions to the object. Let's see the usage of this property,const newObject = {}; Object.preventExtensions(newObject); // NOT extendable try { Object.defineProperty(newObject, 'newProperty', { // Adding new property value: 100 }); } catch (e) { console.log(e); // TypeError: Cannot define property newProperty, object is not extensible }
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You can mark an object non-extensible in 3 ways,
- Object.preventExtensions
- Object.seal
- Object.freeze
var newObject = {}; Object.preventExtensions(newObject); // Prevent objects are non-extensible Object.isExtensible(newObject); // false var sealedObject = Object.seal({}); // Sealed objects are non-extensible Object.isExtensible(sealedObject); // false var frozenObject = Object.freeze({}); // Frozen objects are non-extensible Object.isExtensible(frozenObject); // false
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The
Object.defineProperties()method is used to define new or modify existing properties directly on an object and returning the object. Let's define multiple properties on an empty object,const newObject = {}; Object.defineProperties(newObject, { newProperty1: { value: 'John', writable: true }, newProperty2: {} });
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The MEAN (MongoDB, Express, AngularJS, and Node.js) stack is the most popular open-source JavaScript software tech stack available for building dynamic web apps where you can write both the server-side and client-side halves of the web project entirely in JavaScript.
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Obfuscation is the deliberate act of creating obfuscated javascript code(i.e, source or machine code) that is difficult for humans to understand. It is something similar to encryption, but a machine can understand the code and execute it. Let's see the below function before Obfuscation,
function greeting() { console.log('Hello, welcome to JS world'); }
And after the code Obfuscation, it would be appeared as below,
eval(function(p,a,c,k,e,d){e=function(c){return c};if(!''.replace(/^/,String)){while(c--){d[c]=k[c]||c}k=[function(e){return d[e]}];e=function(){return'\\w+'};c=1};while(c--){if(k[c]){p=p.replace(new RegExp('\\b'+e(c)+'\\b','g'),k[c])}}return p}('2 1(){0.3(\'4, 7 6 5 8\')}',9,9,'console|greeting|function|log|Hello|JS|to|welcome|world'.split('|'),0,{}))
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Below are the few reasons for Obfuscation,
- The Code size will be reduced. So data transfers between server and client will be fast.
- It hides the business logic from outside world and protects the code from others
- Reverse engineering is highly difficult
- The download time will be reduced
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Minification is the process of removing all unnecessary characters(empty spaces are removed) and variables will be renamed without changing it's functionality. It is also a type of obfuscation .
-
Normally it is recommended to use minification for heavy traffic and intensive requirements of resources. It reduces file sizes with below benefits,
- Decreases loading times of a web page
- Saves bandwidth usages
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Below are the main differences between Obfuscation and Encryption,
Feature Obfuscation Encryption Definition Changing the form of any data in any other form Changing the form of information to an unreadable format by using a key A key to decode It can be decoded without any key It is required Target data format It will be converted to a complex form Converted into an unreadable format -
There are many online/offline tools to minify the javascript files,
- Google's Closure Compiler
- UglifyJS2
- jsmin
- javascript-minifier.com/
- prettydiff.com
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JavaScript can be used to perform HTML form validation. For example, if the form field is empty, the function needs to notify, and return false, to prevent the form being submitted. Lets' perform user login in an html form,
<form name="myForm" onsubmit="return validateForm()" method="post"> User name: <input type="text" name="uname"> <input type="submit" value="Submit"> </form>
And the validation on user login is below,
function validateForm() { var x = document.forms["myForm"]["uname"].value; if (x == "") { alert("The username shouldn't be empty"); return false; } }
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You can perform HTML form validation automatically without using javascript. The validation enabled by applying the
requiredattribute to prevent form submission when the input is empty.<form method="post"> <input type="text" name="uname" required> <input type="submit" value="Submit"> </form>
Note: Automatic form validation does not work in Internet Explorer 9 or earlier.
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The below DOM methods are available for constraint validation on an invalid input,
- checkValidity(): It returns true if an input element contains valid data.
- setCustomValidity(): It is used to set the validationMessage property of an input element. Let's take an user login form with DOM validations
function myFunction() { var userName = document.getElementById("uname"); if (!userName.checkValidity()) { document.getElementById("message").innerHTML = userName.validationMessage; } else { document.getElementById("message").innerHTML = "Entered a valid username"; } }
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Below are the list of some of the constraint validation DOM properties available,
- validity: It provides a list of boolean properties related to the validity of an input element.
- validationMessage: It displays the message when the validity is false.
- willValidate: It indicates if an input element will be validated or not.
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The validity property of an input element provides a set of properties related to the validity of data.
- customError: It returns true, if a custom validity message is set.
- patternMismatch: It returns true, if an element's value does not match its pattern attribute.
- rangeOverflow: It returns true, if an element's value is greater than its max attribute.
- rangeUnderflow: It returns true, if an element's value is less than its min attribute.
- stepMismatch: It returns true, if an element's value is invalid according to step attribute.
- tooLong: It returns true, if an element's value exceeds its maxLength attribute.
- typeMismatch: It returns true, if an element's value is invalid according to type attribute.
- valueMissing: It returns true, if an element with a required attribute has no value.
- valid: It returns true, if an element's value is valid.
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If an element's value is greater than its max attribute then rangeOverflow property returns true. For example, the below form submission throws an error if the value is more than 100,
<input id="age" type="number" max="100"> <button onclick="myOverflowFunction()">OK</button>
function myOverflowFunction() { if (document.getElementById("age").validity.rangeOverflow) { alert("The mentioned age is not allowed"); } }
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No, javascript does not natively support enums. But there are different kinds of solutions to simulate them even though they may not provide exact equivalents. For example, you can use freeze or seal on object,
var DaysEnum = Object.freeze({"monday":1, "tuesday":2, "wednesday":3, ...})
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An enum is a type restricting variables to one value from a predefined set of constants. JavaScript has no enums but typescript provides built-in enum support.
enum Color { RED, GREEN, BLUE }
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You can use the
Object.getOwnPropertyNames()method which returns an array of all properties found directly in a given object. Let's the usage of it in an example,const newObject = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 }; console.log(Object.getOwnPropertyNames(newObject)); ["a", "b", "c"]
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You can use the
Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors()method which returns all own property descriptors of a given object. The example usage of this method is below,const newObject = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 }; const descriptorsObject = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors(newObject); console.log(descriptorsObject.a.writable); //true console.log(descriptorsObject.a.configurable); //true console.log(descriptorsObject.a.enumerable); //true console.log(descriptorsObject.a.value); // 1
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A property descriptor is a record which has the following attributes
- value: The value associated with the property
- writable: Determines whether the value associated with the property can be changed or not
- configurable: Returns true if the type of this property descriptor can be changed and if the property can be deleted from the corresponding object.
- enumerable: Determines whether the property appears during enumeration of the properties on the corresponding object or not.
- set: A function which serves as a setter for the property
- get: A function which serves as a getter for the property
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The
extendskeyword is used in class declarations/expressions to create a class which is a child of another class. It can be used to subclass custom classes as well as built-in objects. The syntax would be as below,class ChildClass extends ParentClass { ... }
Let's take an example of Square subclass from Polygon parent class,
class Square extends Rectangle { constructor(length) { super(length, length); this.name = 'Square'; } get area() { return this.width * this.height; } set area(value) { this.area = value; } }
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The
window.location.urlproperty will be helpful to modify the url but it reloads the page. HTML5 introduced thehistory.pushState()andhistory.replaceState()methods, which allow you to add and modify history entries, respectively. For example, you can use pushState as below,window.history.pushState('page2', 'Title', '/page2.html');
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The
Array#includes()method is used to determine whether an array includes a particular value among its entries by returning either true or false. Let's see an example to find an element(numeric and string) within an array.var numericArray = [1, 2, 3, 4]; console.log(numericArray.includes(3)); // true var stringArray = ['green', 'yellow', 'blue']; console.log(stringArray.includes('blue')); //true
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You can use length and every method of arrays to compare two scalar(compared directly using ===) arrays. The combination of these expressions can give the expected result,
const arrayFirst = [1,2,3,4,5]; const arraySecond = [1,2,3,4,5]; console.log(arrayFirst.length === arraySecond.length && arrayFirst.every((value, index) => value === arraySecond[index])); // true
If you would like to compare arrays irrespective of order then you should sort them before,
const arrayFirst = [2,3,1,4,5]; const arraySecond = [1,2,3,4,5]; console.log(arrayFirst.length === arraySecond.length && arrayFirst.sort().every((value, index) => value === arraySecond[index])); //true
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The
new URL()object accepts the url string andsearchParamsproperty of this object can be used to access the get parameters. Remember that you may need to use polyfill orwindow.locationto access the URL in older browsers(including IE).let urlString = "http://www.some-domain.com/about.html?x=1&y=2&z=3"; //window.location.href let url = new URL(urlString); let parameterZ = url.searchParams.get("z"); console.log(parameterZ); // 3
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You can use the
Number.prototype.toLocaleString()method which returns a string with a language-sensitive representation such as thousand separator,currency etc of this number.function convertToThousandFormat(x){ return x.toLocaleString(); // 12,345.679 } console.log(convertToThousandFormat(12345.6789));
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Both are totally unrelated programming languages and no relation between them. Java is statically typed, compiled, runs on its own VM. Whereas Javascript is dynamically typed, interpreted, and runs in a browser and nodejs environments. Let's see the major differences in a tabular format,
Feature Java JavaScript Typed It's a strongly typed language It's a dynamic typed language Paradigm Object oriented programming Prototype based programming Scoping Block scoped Function-scoped Concurrency Thread based event based Memory Uses more memory Uses less memory. Hence it will be used for web pages -
JavaScript doesn’t support namespace by default. So if you create any element(function, method, object, variable) then it becomes global and pollutes the global namespace. Let's take an example of defining two functions without any namespace,
function func1() { console.log("This is a first definition"); } function func1() { console.log("This is a second definition"); } func1(); // This is a second definition
It always calls the second function definition. In this case, namespace will solve the name collision problem.
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Even though JavaScript lacks namespaces, we can use Objects , IIFE to create namespaces.
- Using Object Literal Notation: Let's wrap variables and functions inside an Object literal which acts as a namespace. After that you can access them using object notation
var namespaceOne = { function func1() { console.log("This is a first definition"); } } var namespaceTwo = { function func1() { console.log("This is a second definition"); } } namespaceOne.func1(); // This is a first definition namespaceTwo.func1(); // This is a second definition
- Using IIFE (Immediately invoked function expression): The outer pair of parentheses of IIFE creates a local scope for all the code inside of it and makes the anonymous function a function expression. Due to that, you can create the same function in two different function expressions to act as a namespace.
(function() { function fun1(){ console.log("This is a first definition"); } fun1(); }()); (function() { function fun1(){ console.log("This is a second definition"); } fun1(); }());
- Using a block and a let/const declaration: In ECMAScript 6, you can simply use a block and a let declaration to restrict the scope of a variable to a block.
{ let myFunction= function fun1(){ console.log("This is a first definition"); } myFunction(); } //myFunction(): ReferenceError: myFunction is not defined. { let myFunction= function fun1(){ console.log("This is a second definition"); } myFunction(); } //myFunction(): ReferenceError: myFunction is not defined.
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Initially iFrame needs to be accessed using either
document.getElementByorwindow.frames. After thatcontentWindowproperty of iFrame gives the access for targetFunctiondocument.getElementById('targetFrame').contentWindow.targetFunction(); window.frames[0].frameElement.contentWindow.targetFunction(); // Accessing iframe this way may not work in latest versions chrome and firefox
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You can use the
getTimezoneOffsetmethod of the date object. This method returns the time zone difference, in minutes, from current locale (host system settings) to UTCvar offset = new Date().getTimezoneOffset(); console.log(offset); // -480
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You can create both link and script elements in the DOM and append them as child to head tag. Let's create a function to add script and style resources as below,
function loadAssets(filename, filetype) { if (filetype == "css") { // External CSS file var fileReference = document.createElement("link") fileReference.setAttribute("rel", "stylesheet"); fileReference.setAttribute("type", "text/css"); fileReference.setAttribute("href", filename); } else if (filetype == "js") { // External JavaScript file var fileReference = document.createElement('script'); fileReference.setAttribute("type", "text/javascript"); fileReference.setAttribute("src", filename); } if (typeof fileReference != "undefined") document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(fileReference) }
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If you want to access any element in an HTML page, you need to start with accessing the document object. Later you can use any of the below methods to find the HTML element,
- document.getElementById(id): It finds an element by Id
- document.getElementsByTagName(name): It finds an element by tag name
- document.getElementsByClassName(name): It finds an element by class name
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jQuery is a popular cross-browser JavaScript library that provides Document Object Model (DOM) traversal, event handling, animations and AJAX interactions by minimizing the discrepancies across browsers. It is widely famous with its philosophy of “Write less, do more”. For example, you can display welcome message on the page load using jQuery as below,
$(document).ready(function(){ // It selects the document and apply the function on page load alert('Welcome to jQuery world'); });
Note: You can download it from jquery's official site or install it from CDNs, like google.
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V8 is an open source high-performance JavaScript engine used by the Google Chrome browser, written in C++. It is also being used in the node.js project. It implements ECMAScript and WebAssembly, and runs on Windows 7 or later, macOS 10.12+, and Linux systems that use x64, IA-32, ARM, or MIPS processors. Note: It can run standalone, or can be embedded into any C++ application.
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JavaScript is a loosely typed or a dynamic language because variables in JavaScript are not directly associated with any particular value type, and any variable can be assigned/reassigned with values of all types.
let age = 50; // age is a number now age = 'old'; // age is a string now age = true; // age is a boolean
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The
voidoperator evaluates the given expression and then returns undefined(i.e, without returning value). The syntax would be as below,void (expression) void expression
Let's display a message without any redirection or reload
<a href="javascript:void(alert('Welcome to JS world'))">Click here to see a message</a>
Note: This operator is often used to obtain the undefined primitive value, using "void(0)".
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The cursor can be set to wait in JavaScript by using the property "cursor". Let's perform this behavior on page load using the below function.
function myFunction() { window.document.body.style.cursor = "wait"; }
and this function invoked on page load
<body onload="myFunction()">
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You can create infinite loops using for and while loops without using any expressions. The for loop construct or syntax is better approach in terms of ESLint and code optimizer tools,
for (;;) {} while(true) { }
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JavaScript's with statement was intended to provide a shorthand for writing recurring accesses to objects. So it can help reduce file size by reducing the need to repeat a lengthy object reference without performance penalty. Let's take an example where it is used to avoid redundancy when accessing an object several times.
a.b.c.greeting = 'welcome'; a.b.c.age = 32;
Using
withit turns this into:with(a.b.c) { greeting = "welcome"; age = 32; }
But this
withstatement creates performance problems since one cannot predict whether an argument will refer to a real variable or to a property inside the with argument. -
for (var i = 0; i < 4; i++) { // global scope setTimeout(() => console.log(i)); } for (let i = 0; i < 4; i++) { // block scope setTimeout(() => console.log(i)); }
The output of the above for loops is 4 4 4 4 and 0 1 2 3
Explanation: Due to the event queue/loop of javascript, the
setTimeoutcallback function is called after the loop has been executed. Since the variable i is declared with thevarkeyword it became a global variable and the value was equal to 4 using iteration when the timesetTimeoutfunction is invoked. Hence, the output of the first loop is4 4 4 4.Whereas in the second loop, the variable i is declared as the
letkeyword it becomes a block scoped variable and it holds a new value(0, 1 ,2 3) for each iteration. Hence, the output of the first loop is0 1 2 3. -
Below are the list of some new features of ES6,
- Support for constants or immutable variables
- Block-scope support for variables, constants and functions
- Arrow functions
- Default parameters
- Rest and Spread Parameters
- Template Literals
- Multi-line Strings
- Destructuring Assignment
- Enhanced Object Literals
- Promises
- Classes
- Modules
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ES6 is the sixth edition of the javascript language and it was released in June 2015. It was initially known as ECMAScript 6 (ES6) and later renamed to ECMAScript 2015. Almost all the modern browsers support ES6 but for the old browsers there are many transpilers, like Babel.js etc.
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No, you cannot redeclare let and const variables. If you do, it throws below error
Uncaught SyntaxError: Identifier 'someVariable' has already been declaredExplanation: The variable declaration with
varkeyword refers to a function scope and the variable is treated as if it were declared at the top of the enclosing scope due to hoisting feature. So all the multiple declarations contributing to the same hoisted variable without any error. Let's take an example of re-declaring variables in the same scope for both var and let/const variables.var name = 'John'; function myFunc() { var name = 'Nick'; var name = 'Abraham'; // Re-assigned in the same function block alert(name); // Abraham } myFunc(); alert(name); // John
The block-scoped multi-declaration throws syntax error,
let name = 'John'; function myFunc() { let name = 'Nick'; let name = 'Abraham'; // Uncaught SyntaxError: Identifier 'name' has already been declared alert(name); } myFunc(); alert(name);
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No, the const variable doesn't make the value immutable. But it disallows subsequent assignments(i.e, You can declare with assignment but can't assign another value later)
const userList = []; userList.push('John'); // Can mutate even though it can't re-assign console.log(userList); // ['John']
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In E5, we need to depend on logical OR operators to handle default values of function parameters. Whereas in ES6, Default function parameters feature allows parameters to be initialized with default values if no value or undefined is passed. Let's compare the behavior with an examples,
//ES5 var calculateArea = function(height, width) { height = height || 50; width = width || 60; return width * height; } console.log(calculateArea()); //300
The default parameters makes the initialization more simpler,
//ES6 var calculateArea = function(height = 50, width = 60) { return width * height; } console.log(calculateArea()); //300
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Template literals or template strings are string literals allowing embedded expressions. These are enclosed by the back-tick (`) character instead of double or single quotes. In E6, this feature enables using dynamic expressions as below,
var greeting = `Welcome to JS World, Mr. ${firstName} ${lastName}.`
In ES5, you need break string like below,
var greeting = 'Welcome to JS World, Mr. ' + firstName + ' ' + lastName.`
Note: You can use multi-line strings and string interpolation features with template literals.
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In ES5, you would have to use newline escape characters('\n') and concatenation symbols(+) in order to get multi-line strings.
console.log('This is string sentence 1\n' + 'This is string sentence 2');
Whereas in ES6, You don't need to mention any newline sequence character,
console.log(`This is string sentence 'This is string sentence 2`);
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The nesting template is a feature supported within template literals syntax to allow inner backticks inside a placeholder ${ } within the template. For example, the below nesting template is used to display the icons based on user permissions whereas outer template checks for platform type,
const iconStyles = `icon ${ isMobilePlatform() ? '' : `icon-${user.isAuthorized ? 'submit' : 'disabled'}` }`;
You can write the above use case without nesting template features as well. However, the nesting template feature is more compact and readable.
//Without nesting templates const iconStyles = `icon ${ isMobilePlatform() ? '' : (user.isAuthorized ? 'icon-submit' : 'icon-disabled'}`;
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Tagged templates are the advanced form of templates in which tags allow you to parse template literals with a function. The tag function accepts the first parameter as an array of strings and remaining parameters as expressions. This function can also return manipulated strings based on parameters. Let's see the usage of this tagged template behavior of an IT professional skill set in an organization,
var user1 = 'John'; var skill1 = 'JavaScript'; var experience1 = 15; var user2 = 'Kane'; var skill2 = 'JavaScript'; var experience2 = 5; function myInfoTag(strings, userExp, experienceExp, skillExp) { var str0 = strings[0]; // "Mr/Ms. " var str1 = strings[1]; // " is a/an " var str2 = strings[2]; // "in" var expertiseStr; if (experienceExp > 10){ expertiseStr = 'expert developer'; } else if(skillExp > 5 && skillExp <= 10) { expertiseStr = 'senior developer'; } else { expertiseStr = 'junior developer'; } return `${str0}${userExp}${str1}${expertiseStr}${str2}${skillExp}`; } var output1 = myInfoTag`Mr/Ms. ${ user1 } is a/an ${ experience1 } in ${skill1}`; var output2 = myInfoTag`Mr/Ms. ${ user2 } is a/an ${ experience2 } in ${skill2}`; console.log(output1);// Mr/Ms. John is a/an expert developer in JavaScript console.log(output2);// Mr/Ms. Kane is a/an junior developer in JavaScript
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ES6 provides a raw strings feature using the
String.raw()method which is used to get the raw string form of template strings. This feature allows you to access the raw strings as they were entered, without processing escape sequences. For example, the usage would be as below,var calculationString = String.raw `The sum of numbers is \n${1+2+3+4}!`; console.log(calculationString); // The sum of numbers is 10
If you don't use raw strings, the newline character sequence will be processed by displaying the output in multiple lines
var calculationString = `The sum of numbers is \n${1+2+3+4}!`; console.log(calculationString); // The sum of numbers is // 10
Also, the raw property is available on the first argument to the tag function
function tag(strings) { console.log(strings.raw[0]); }
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The destructuring assignment is a JavaScript expression that makes it possible to unpack values from arrays or properties from objects into distinct variables. Let's get the month values from an array using destructuring assignment
var [one, two, three] = ['JAN', 'FEB', 'MARCH']; console.log(one); // "JAN" console.log(two); // "FEB" console.log(three); // "MARCH"
and you can get user properties of an object using destructuring assignment,
var {name, age} = {name: 'John', age: 32}; console.log(name); // John console.log(age); // 32
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A variable can be assigned a default value when the value unpacked from the array or object is undefined during destructuring assignment. It helps to avoid setting default values separately for each assignment. Let's take an example for both arrays and object use cases,
Arrays destructuring:
var x, y, z; [x=2, y=4, z=6] = [10]; console.log(x); // 10 console.log(y); // 4 console.log(z); // 6
Objects destructuring:
var {x=2, y=4, z=6} = {x: 10}; console.log(x); // 10 console.log(y); // 4 console.log(z); // 6
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If you don't use destructuring assignment, swapping two values requires a temporary variable. Whereas using a destructuring feature, two variable values can be swapped in one destructuring expression. Let's swap two number variables in array destructuring assignment,
var x = 10, y = 20; [x, y] = [y, x]; console.log(x); // 20 console.log(y); // 10
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Object literals make it easy to quickly create objects with properties inside the curly braces. For example, it provides shorter syntax for common object property definition as below.
//ES6 var x = 10, y = 20 obj = { x, y } console.log(obj); // {x: 10, y:20} //ES5 var x = 10, y = 20 obj = { x : x, y : y} console.log(obj); // {x: 10, y:20}
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The dynamic imports using
import()function syntax allows us to load modules on demand by using promises or the async/await syntax. Currently this feature is in stage4 proposal. The main advantage of dynamic imports is reduction of our bundle's sizes, the size/payload response of our requests and overall improvements in the user experience. The syntax of dynamic imports would be as below,import('./Module').then(Module => Module.method());
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Below are some of the use cases of using dynamic imports over static imports,
- Import a module on-demand or conditionally. For example, if you want to load a polyfill on legacy browser
if (isLegacyBrowser()) { import(···) .then(···); }
- Compute the module specifier at runtime. For example, you can use it for internationalization.
import(`messages_${getLocale()}.js`).then(···);
- Import a module from within a regular script instead a module.
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Typed arrays are array-like objects from ECMAScript 6 API for handling binary data. JavaScript provides 8 Typed array types,
- Int8Array: An array of 8-bit signed integers
- Int16Array: An array of 16-bit signed integers
- Int32Array: An array of 32-bit signed integers
- Uint8Array: An array of 8-bit unsigned integers
- Uint16Array: An array of 16-bit unsigned integers
- Uint32Array: An array of 32-bit unsigned integers
- Float32Array: An array of 32-bit floating point numbers
- Float64Array: An array of 64-bit floating point numbers
For example, you can create an array of 8-bit signed integers as below
const a = new Int8Array(); // You can pre-allocate n bytes const bytes = 1024 const a = new Int8Array(bytes)
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The module loaders provides the below features,
- Dynamic loading
- State isolation
- Global namespace isolation
- Compilation hooks
- Nested virtualization
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Collation is used for sorting a set of strings and searching within a set of strings. It is parameterized by locale and aware of Unicode. Let's take comparison and sorting features,
- Comparison:
var list = [ "ä", "a", "z" ]; // In German, "ä" sorts with "a" Whereas in Swedish, "ä" sorts after "z" var l10nDE = new Intl.Collator("de"); var l10nSV = new Intl.Collator("sv"); console.log(l10nDE.compare("ä", "z") === -1); // true console.log(l10nSV.compare("ä", "z") === +1); // true
- Sorting:
var list = [ "ä", "a", "z" ]; // In German, "ä" sorts with "a" Whereas in Swedish, "ä" sorts after "z" var l10nDE = new Intl.Collator("de"); var l10nSV = new Intl.Collator("sv"); console.log(list.sort(l10nDE.compare)) // [ "a", "ä", "z" ] console.log(list.sort(l10nSV.compare)) // [ "a", "z", "ä" ]
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The for...of statement creates a loop iterating over iterable objects or elements such as built-in String, Array, Array-like objects (like arguments or NodeList), TypedArray, Map, Set, and user-defined iterables. The basic usage of for...of statement on arrays would be as below,
let arrayIterable = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]; for (let value of arrayIterable) { value ++; console.log(value); // 11 21 31 41 51 }
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[...'John Resig']
The output of the array is ['J', 'o', 'h', 'n', '', 'R', 'e', 's', 'i', 'g'] Explanation: The string is an iterable type and the spread operator within an array maps every character of an iterable to one element. Hence, each character of a string becomes an element within an Array.
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Yes, postMessages can be considered very secure as long as the programmer/developer is careful about checking the origin and source of an arriving message. But if you try to send/receive a message without verifying its source will create cross-site scripting attacks.
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The second argument of postMessage method specifies which origin is allowed to receive the message. If you use the wildcard “*” as an argument then any origin is allowed to receive the message. In this case, there is no way for the sender window to know if the target window is at the target origin when sending the message. If the target window has been navigated to another origin, the other origin would receive the data. Hence, this may lead to XSS vulnerabilities.
targetWindow.postMessage(message, '*');
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Since the listener listens for any message, an attacker can trick the application by sending a message from the attacker’s origin, which gives an impression that the receiver received the message from the actual sender’s window. You can avoid this issue by validating the origin of the message on the receiver's end using the “message.origin” attribute. For examples, let's check the sender's origin http://www.some-sender.com on receiver side www.some-receiver.com,
//Listener on http://www.some-receiver.com/ window.addEventListener("message", function(message){ if(/^http://www\.some-sender\.com$/.test(message.origin)){ console.log('You received the data from valid sender', message.data); } });
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You cannot avoid using postMessages completely(or 100%). Even though your application doesn’t use postMessage considering the risks, a lot of third party scripts use postMessage to communicate with the third party service. So your application might be using postMessage without your knowledge.
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The postMessages are synchronous in IE8 browser but they are asynchronous in IE9 and all other modern browsers (i.e, IE9+, Firefox, Chrome, Safari).Due to this asynchronous behaviour, we use a callback mechanism when the postMessage is returned.
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JavaScript is a multi-paradigm language, supporting imperative/procedural programming, Object-Oriented Programming and functional programming. JavaScript supports Object-Oriented Programming with prototypical inheritance.
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Internal JavaScript: It is the source code within the script tag. External JavaScript: The source code is stored in an external file(stored with .js extension) and referred with in the tag.
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Yes, JavaScript is faster than server side script. Because JavaScript is a client-side script it does not require any web server’s help for its computation or calculation. So JavaScript is always faster than any server-side script like ASP, PHP, etc.
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You can apply the
checkedproperty on the selected checkbox in the DOM. If the value isTruemeans the checkbox is checked otherwise it is unchecked. For example, the below HTML checkbox element can be access using javascript as below,<input type="checkbox" name="checkboxname" value="Agree"> Agree the conditions<br>
console.log(document.getElementById(‘checkboxname’).checked); // true or false
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The double tilde operator(~~) is known as double NOT bitwise operator. This operator is going to be a quicker substitute for Math.floor().
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You can use the
String.prototype.charCodeAt()method to convert string characters to ASCII numbers. For example, let's find ASCII code for the first letter of 'ABC' string,"ABC".charCodeAt(0) // returns 65
Whereas
String.fromCharCode()method converts numbers to equal ASCII characters.String.fromCharCode(65,66,67); // returns 'ABC'
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An ArrayBuffer object is used to represent a generic, fixed-length raw binary data buffer. You can create it as below,
let buffer = new ArrayBuffer(16); // create a buffer of length 16 alert(buffer.byteLength); // 16
To manipulate an ArrayBuffer, we need to use a “view” object.
//Create a DataView referring to the buffer let view = new DataView(buffer);
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console.log("Welcome to JS world"[0])
The output of the above expression is "W". Explanation: The bracket notation with specific index on a string returns the character at a specific location. Hence, it returns the character "W" of the string. Since this is not supported in IE7 and below versions, you may need to use the .charAt() method to get the desired result.
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The Error constructor creates an error object and the instances of error objects are thrown when runtime errors occur. The Error object can also be used as a base object for user-defined exceptions. The syntax of error object would be as below,
new Error([message[, fileName[, lineNumber]]])
You can throw user defined exceptions or errors using Error object in try...catch block as below,
try { if(withdraw > balance) throw new Error("Oops! You don't have enough balance"); } catch (e) { console.log(e.name + ': ' + e.message); }
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The EvalError object indicates an error regarding the global
eval()function. Even though this exception is not thrown by JavaScript anymore, the EvalError object remains for compatibility. The syntax of this expression would be as below,new EvalError([message[, fileName[, lineNumber]]])
You can throw EvalError with in try...catch block as below,
try { throw new EvalError('Eval function error', 'someFile.js', 100); } catch (e) { console.log(e.message, e.name, e.fileName); // "Eval function error", "EvalError", "someFile.js"
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When you apply 'use strict'; syntax, some of the below cases will throw a SyntaxError before executing the script
- When you use Octal syntax
var n = 022;
- Using
withstatement - When you use delete operator on a variable name
- Using eval or arguments as variable or function argument name
- When you use newly reserved keywords
- When you declare a function in a block
if (someCondition) { function f() {} }
Hence, the errors from above cases are helpful to avoid errors in development/production environments.
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No. All objects have prototypes except for the base object which is created by the user, or an object that is created using the new keyword.
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Parameter is the variable name of a function definition whereas an argument represents the value given to a function when it is invoked. Let's explain this with a simple function
function myFunction(parameter1, parameter2, parameter3) { console.log(arguments[0]) // "argument1" console.log(arguments[1]) // "argument2" console.log(arguments[2]) // "argument3" } myFunction("argument1", "argument2", "argument3")
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The some() method is used to test whether at least one element in the array passes the test implemented by the provided function. The method returns a boolean value. Let's take an example to test for any odd elements,
var array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ,7, 8, 9, 10]; var odd = element ==> element % 2 !== 0; console.log(array.some(odd)); // true (the odd element exists)
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The concat() method is used to join two or more arrays by returning a new array containing all the elements. The syntax would be as below,
array1.concat(array2, array3, ..., arrayX)
Let's take an example of array's concatenation with veggies and fruits arrays,
var veggies = ["Tomato", "Carrot", "Cabbage"]; var fruits = ["Apple", "Orange", "Pears"]; var veggiesAndFruits = veggies.concat(fruits); console.log(veggiesAndFruits); // Tomato, Carrot, Cabbage, Apple, Orange, Pears
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There are two ways to copy an object,
Shallow Copy: Shallow copy is a bitwise copy of an object. A new object is created that has an exact copy of the values in the original object. If any of the fields of the object are references to other objects, just the reference addresses are copied i.e., only the memory address is copied.
Example
var empDetails = { name: "John", age: 25, expertise: "Software Developer" }
to create a duplicate
var empDetailsShallowCopy = empDetails //Shallow copying!
if we change some property value in the duplicate one like this:
empDetailsShallowCopy.name = "Johnson"
The above statement will also change the name of
empDetails, since we have a shallow copy. That means we're losing the original data as well.Deep copy: A deep copy copies all fields, and makes copies of dynamically allocated memory pointed to by the fields. A deep copy occurs when an object is copied along with the objects to which it refers.
Example
var empDetails = { name: "John", age: 25, expertise: "Software Developer" }
Create a deep copy by using the properties from the original object into new variable
var empDetailsDeepCopy = { name: empDetails.name, age: empDetails.age, expertise: empDetails.expertise }
Now if you change
empDetailsDeepCopy.name, it will only affectempDetailsDeepCopy& notempDetails -
The
repeat()method is used to construct and return a new string which contains the specified number of copies of the string on which it was called, concatenated together. Remember that this method has been added to the ECMAScript 2015 specification. Let's take an example of Hello string to repeat it 4 times,'Hello'.repeat(4); // 'HelloHelloHelloHello'
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The
matchAll()method can be used to return an iterator of all results matching a string against a regular expression. For example, the below example returns an array of matching string results against a regular expression,let regexp = /Hello(\d?))/g; let greeting = 'Hello1Hello2Hello3'; let greetingList = [...greeting.matchAll(regexp)]; console.log(greetingList[0]); //Hello1 console.log(greetingList[1]); //Hello2 console.log(greetingList[2]); //Hello3
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The
trimmethod of string prototype is used to trim on both sides of a string. But if you want to trim especially at the beginning or ending of the string then you can usetrimStart/trimLeftandtrimEnd/trimRightmethods. Let's see an example of these methods on a greeting message,var greeting = ' Hello, Goodmorning! '; console.log(greeting); // " Hello, Goodmorning! " console.log(greeting.trimStart()); // "Hello, Goodmorning! " console.log(greeting.trimLeft()); // "Hello, Goodmorning! " console.log(greeting.trimEnd()); // " Hello, Goodmorning!" console.log(greeting.trimRight()); // " Hello, Goodmorning!"
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Let's take console statement with unary operator as given below,
console.log(+ 'Hello');
The output of the above console log statement returns NaN. Because the element is prefixed by the unary operator and the JavaScript interpreter will try to convert that element into a number type. Since the conversion fails, the value of the statement results in NaN value.
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Mixin is a generic object-oriented programming term - is a class containing methods that can be used by other classes without a need to inherit from it. In JavaScript we can only inherit from a single object. ie. There can be only one
[[prototype]]for an object.But sometimes we require to extend more than one, to overcome this we can use Mixin which helps to copy methods to the prototype of another class.
Say for instance, we've two classes
UserandCleanRoom. Suppose we need to addCleanRoomfunctionality toUser, so that user can clean the room at demand. Here's where concept called mixins comes into picture.// mixin let cleanRoomMixin = { cleanRoom() { alert(`Hello ${this.name}, your room is clean now`); }, sayBye() { alert(`Bye ${this.name}`); } }; // usage: class User { constructor(name) { this.name = name; } } // copy the methods Object.assign(User.prototype, cleanRoomMixin); // now User can clean the room new User("Dude").cleanRoom(); // Hello Dude, your room is clean now!
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A thunk is just a function which delays the evaluation of the value. It doesn’t take any arguments but gives the value whenever you invoke the thunk. i.e, It is used not to execute now but it will be sometime in the future. Let's take a synchronous example,
const add = (x,y) => x + y; const thunk = () => add(2,3); thunk() // 5
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The asynchronous thunks are useful to make network requests. Let's see an example of network requests,
function fetchData(fn){ fetch('https://jsonplaceholder.typicode.com/todos/1') .then(response => response.json()) .then(json => fn(json)) } const asyncThunk = function (){ return fetchData(function getData(data){ console.log(data) }) } asyncThunk()
The
getDatafunction won't be called immediately but it will be invoked only when the data is available from API endpoint. The setTimeout function is also used to make our code asynchronous. The best real time example is redux state management library which uses the asynchronous thunks to delay the actions to dispatch. -
Code snippet:
const circle = { radius: 20, diameter() { return this.radius * 2; }, perimeter: () => 2 * Math.PI * this.radius };
console.log(circle.diameter()); console.log(circle.perimeter());
Output:
The output is 40 and NaN. Remember that diameter is a regular function, whereas the value of perimeter is an arrow function. The
thiskeyword of a regular function(i.e, diameter) refers to the surrounding scope which is a class(i.e, Shape object). Whereas this keyword of perimeter function refers to the surrounding scope which is a window object. Since there is no radius property on window objects it returns an undefined value and the multiple of number value returns NaN value. -
The easiest approach is using regular expressions to detect and replace newlines in the string. In this case, we use replace function along with string to replace with, which in our case is an empty string.
function remove_linebreaks( var message ) { return message.replace( /[\r\n]+/gm, "" ); }
In the above expression, g and m are for global and multiline flags.
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A repaint occurs when changes are made which affect the visibility of an element, but not its layout. Examples of this include outline, visibility, or background color. A reflow involves changes that affect the layout of a portion of the page (or the whole page). Resizing the browser window, changing the font, content changing (such as user typing text), using JavaScript methods involving computed styles, adding or removing elements from the DOM, and changing an element's classes are a few of the things that can trigger reflow. Reflow of an element causes the subsequent reflow of all child and ancestor elements as well as any elements following it in the DOM.
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Negating an array with
!character will coerce the array into a boolean. Since Arrays are considered to be truthy So negating it will returnfalse.console.log(![]); // false
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If you add two arrays together, it will convert them both to strings and concatenate them. For example, the result of adding arrays would be as below,
console.log(['a'] + ['b']); // "ab" console.log([] + []); // "" console.log(![] + []); // "false", because ![] returns false.
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If you prepend the additive(+) operator on falsy values(null, undefined, NaN, false, ""), the falsy value converts to a number value zero. Let's display them on browser console as below,
console.log(+null); // 0 console.log(+undefined);// NaN console.log(+false); // 0 console.log(+NaN); // NaN console.log(+""); // 0
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The self string can be formed with the combination of
[]()!+characters. You need to remember the below conventions to achieve this pattern.- Since Arrays are truthful values, negating the arrays will produce false: ![] === false
- As per JavaScript coercion rules, the addition of arrays together will toString them: [] + [] === ""
- Prepend an array with + operator will convert an array to false, the negation will make it true and finally converting the result will produce value '1': +(!(+[])) === 1
By applying the above rules, we can derive below conditions
![] + [] === "false" +!+[] === 1
Now the character pattern would be created as below,
s e l f ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ (![] + [])[3] + (![] + [])[4] + (![] + [])[2] + (![] + [])[0] ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ (![] + [])[+!+[]+!+[]+!+[]] + (![] + [])[+!+[]+!+[]+!+[]+!+[]] + (![] + [])[+!+[]+!+[]] + (![] + [])[+[]] ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ (![]+[])[+!+[]+!+[]+!+[]]+(![]+[])[+!+[]+!+[]+!+[]+!+[]]+(![]+[])[+!+[]+!+[]]+(![]+[])[+[]]
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You can apply the filter method on the array by passing Boolean as a parameter. This way it removes all falsy values(0, undefined, null, false and "") from the array.
const myArray = [false, null, 1,5, undefined] myArray.filter(Boolean); // [1, 5] // is same as myArray.filter(x => x);
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You can get unique values of an array with the combination of
Setand rest expression/spread(...) syntax.console.log([...new Set([1, 2, 4, 4, 3])]); // [1, 2, 4, 3]
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Sometimes you would like to have a destructured variable with a different name than the property name. In that case, you'll use a
: newNameto specify a name for the variable. This process is called destructuring aliases.const obj = { x: 1 }; // Grabs obj.x as as { otherName } const { x: otherName } = obj;
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You can map the array values without using the
mapmethod by just using thefrommethod of Array. Let's map city names from Countries array,const countries = [ { name: 'India', capital: 'Delhi' }, { name: 'US', capital: 'Washington' }, { name: 'Russia', capital: 'Moscow' }, { name: 'Singapore', capital: 'Singapore' }, { name: 'China', capital: 'Beijing' }, { name: 'France', capital: 'Paris' }, ]; const cityNames = Array.from(countries, ({ capital}) => capital); console.log(cityNames); // ['Delhi, 'Washington', 'Moscow', 'Singapore', 'Beijing', 'Paris']
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You can empty an array quickly by setting the array length to zero.
let cities = ['Singapore', 'Delhi', 'London']; cities.length = 0; // cities becomes []
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You can round numbers to a certain number of decimals using
toFixedmethod from native javascript.let pie = 3.141592653; pie = pie.toFixed(3); // 3.142
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You can convert an array to an object with the same data using spread(...) operator.
var fruits = ["banana", "apple", "orange", "watermelon"]; var fruitsObject = {...fruits}; console.log(fruitsObject); // {0: "banana", 1: "apple", 2: "orange", 3: "watermelon"}
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You can create an array with some data or an array with the same values using
fillmethod.var newArray = new Array(5).fill("0"); console.log(newArray); // ["0", "0", "0", "0", "0"]
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Below are the list of placeholders available from console object,
- %o — It takes an object,
- %s — It takes a string,
- %d — It is used for a decimal or integer These placeholders can be represented in the console.log as below
const user = { "name":"John", "id": 1, "city": "Delhi"}; console.log("Hello %s, your details %o are available in the object form", "John", user); // Hello John, your details {name: "John", id: 1, city: "Delhi"} are available in object
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Yes, you can apply CSS styles to console messages similar to html text on the web page.
console.log('%c The text has blue color, with large font and red background', 'color: blue; font-size: x-large; background: red');
The text will be displayed as below,
Note: All CSS styles can be applied to console messages.
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The
console.dir()is used to display an interactive list of the properties of the specified JavaScript object as JSON.const user = { "name":"John", "id": 1, "city": "Delhi"}; console.dir(user);
The user object displayed in JSON representation
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Yes, it is possible to get and debug HTML elements in the console just like inspecting elements.
const element = document.getElementsByTagName("body")[0]; console.log(element);
It prints the HTML element in the console,
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The
console.table()is used to display data in the console in a tabular format to visualize complex arrays or objects.const users = [{ "name":"John", "id": 1, "city": "Delhi"}, { "name":"Max", "id": 2, "city": "London"}, { "name":"Rod", "id": 3, "city": "Paris"} ]; console.table(users);
The data visualized in a table format,
Not: Remember that console.table()is not supported in IE. -
The combination of IsNaN and isFinite methods are used to confirm whether an argument is a number or not.
function isNumber(n){ return !isNaN(parseFloat(n)) && isFinite(n); }
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You need to select the content(using .select() method) of the input element and execute the copy command with execCommand (i.e, execCommand('copy')). You can also execute other system commands like cut and paste.
document.querySelector("#copy-button").onclick = function() { // Select the content document.querySelector("#copy-input").select(); // Copy to the clipboard document.execCommand('copy'); };
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You can use
new Date().getTime()to get the current timestamp. There is an alternative shortcut to get the value.console.log(+new Date()); console.log(Date.now());
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Flattening bi-dimensional arrays is trivial with Spread operator.
const biDimensionalArr = [11, [22, 33], [44, 55], [66, 77], 88, 99]; const flattenArr = [].concat(...biDimensionalArr); // [11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77, 88, 99]
But you can make it work with multi-dimensional arrays by recursive calls,
function flattenMultiArray(arr) { const flattened = [].concat(...arr); return flattened.some(item => Array.isArray(item)) ? flattenMultiArray(flattened) : flattened; } const multiDimensionalArr = [11, [22, 33], [44, [55, 66, [77, [88]], 99]]]; const flatArr = flattenMultiArray(multiDimensionalArr); // [11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77, 88, 99]
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You can use
indexOfto compare input with multiple values instead of checking each value as one condition.// Verbose approach if (input === 'first' || input === 1 || input === 'second' || input === 2) { someFunction(); } // Shortcut if (['first', 1, 'second', 2].indexOf(input) !== -1) { someFunction(); }
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The
window.onbeforeunloadmethod is used to capture browser back button events. This is helpful to warn users about losing the current data.window.onbeforeunload = function() { alert("You work will be lost"); };
-
The right click on the page can be disabled by returning false from the
oncontextmenuattribute on the body element.<body oncontextmenu="return false;">
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Primitive Values like string,number and boolean don't have properties and methods but they are temporarily converted or coerced to an object(Wrapper object) when you try to perform actions on them. For example, if you apply toUpperCase() method on a primitive string value, it does not throw an error but returns uppercase of the string.
let name = "john"; console.log(name.toUpperCase()); // Behind the scenes treated as console.log(new String(name).toUpperCase());
i.e, Every primitive except null and undefined have Wrapper Objects and the list of wrapper objects are String,Number,Boolean,Symbol and BigInt.
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AJAX stands for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML and it is a group of related technologies(HTML, CSS, JavaScript, XMLHttpRequest API etc) used to display data asynchronously. i.e. We can send data to the server and get data from the server without reloading the web page.
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Below are the list of different ways to deal with Asynchronous code.
- Callbacks
- Promises
- Async/await
- Third-party libraries such as async.js,bluebird etc
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Until a few days back, One shortcoming of native promises is no direct way to cancel a fetch request. But the new
AbortControllerfrom js specification allows you to use a signal to abort one or multiple fetch calls. The basic flow of cancelling a fetch request would be as below,- Create an
AbortControllerinstance - Get the signal property of an instance and pass the signal as a fetch option for signal
- Call the AbortController's abort property to cancel all fetches that use that signal For example, let's pass the same signal to multiple fetch calls will cancel all requests with that signal,
const controller = new AbortController(); const { signal } = controller; fetch("http://localhost:8000", { signal }).then(response => { console.log(`Request 1 is complete!`); }).catch(e => { if(e.name === "AbortError") { // We know it's been canceled! } }); fetch("http://localhost:8000", { signal }).then(response => { console.log(`Request 2 is complete!`); }).catch(e => { if(e.name === "AbortError") { // We know it's been canceled! } }); // Wait 2 seconds to abort both requests setTimeout(() => controller.abort(), 2000);
- Create an
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Web speech API is used to enable modern browsers recognize and synthesize speech(i.e, voice data into web apps). This API has been introduced by W3C Community in the year 2012. It has two main parts,
- SpeechRecognition (Asynchronous Speech Recognition or Speech-to-Text): It provides the ability to recognize voice context from an audio input and respond accordingly. This is accessed by the
SpeechRecognitioninterface. The below example shows on how to use this API to get text from speech,
window.SpeechRecognition = window.webkitSpeechRecognition || window.SpeechRecognition; // webkitSpeechRecognition for Chrome and SpeechRecognition for FF const recognition = new window.SpeechRecognition(); recognition.onresult = (event) => { // SpeechRecognitionEvent type const speechToText = event.results[0][0].transcript; console.log(speechToText); } recognition.start();
In this API, browser is going to ask you for permission to use your microphone
- SpeechSynthesis (Text-to-Speech): It provides the ability to recognize voice context from an audio input and respond. This is accessed by the
SpeechSynthesisinterface. For example, the below code is used to get voice/speech from text,
if('speechSynthesis' in window){ var speech = new SpeechSynthesisUtterance('Hello World!'); speech.lang = 'en-US'; window.speechSynthesis.speak(speech); }
The above examples can be tested on chrome(33+) browser's developer console. Note: This API is still a working draft and only available in Chrome and Firefox browsers(ofcourse Chrome only implemented the specification)
- SpeechRecognition (Asynchronous Speech Recognition or Speech-to-Text): It provides the ability to recognize voice context from an audio input and respond accordingly. This is accessed by the
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Both browser and NodeJS javascript environments throttles with a minimum delay that is greater than 0ms. That means even though setting a delay of 0ms will not happen instantaneously. Browsers: They have a minimum delay of 4ms. This throttle occurs when successive calls are triggered due to callback nesting(certain depth) or after a certain number of successive intervals. Note: The older browsers have a minimum delay of 10ms. Nodejs: They have a minimum delay of 1ms. This throttle happens when the delay is larger than 2147483647 or less than 1. The best example to explain this timeout throttling behavior is the order of below code snippet.
function runMeFirst() { console.log('My script is initialized'); } setTimeout(runMeFirst, 0); console.log('Script loaded');
and the output would be in
Script loaded My script is initialized
If you don't use
setTimeout, the order of logs will be sequential.function runMeFirst() { console.log('My script is initialized'); } runMeFirst(); console.log('Script loaded');
and the output is,
My script is initialized Script loaded
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You can't use setTimeout(fn, 0) to execute the code immediately due to minimum delay of greater than 0ms. But you can use window.postMessage() to achieve this behavior.
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A task is any javascript code/program which is scheduled to be run by the standard mechanisms such as initially starting to run a program, run an event callback, or an interval or timeout being fired. All these tasks are scheduled on a task queue. Below are the list of use cases to add tasks to the task queue,
- When a new javascript program is executed directly from console or running by the
<script>element, the task will be added to the task queue. - When an event fires, the event callback added to task queue
- When a setTimeout or setInterval is reached, the corresponding callback added to task queue
- When a new javascript program is executed directly from console or running by the
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Microtask is the javascript code which needs to be executed immediately after the currently executing task/microtask is completed. They are kind of blocking in nature. i.e, The main thread will be blocked until the microtask queue is empty. The main sources of microtasks are Promise.resolve, Promise.reject, MutationObservers, IntersectionObservers etc
Note: All of these microtasks are processed in the same turn of the event loop. ⬆ Back to Top
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It is known that not all JavaScript libraries or frameworks have TypeScript declaration files. But if you still want to use libraries or frameworks in our TypeScript files without getting compilation errors, the only solution is
declarekeyword along with a variable declaration. For example, let's imagine you have a library calledcustomLibrarythat doesn’t have a TypeScript declaration and have a namespace calledcustomLibraryin the global namespace. You can use this library in typescript code as below,declare var customLibrary;
In the runtime, typescript will provide the type to the
customLibraryvariable asanytype. The another alternative without using declare keyword is belowvar customLibrary: any;
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Some of the major difference in a tabular form
Promises Observables Emits only a single value at a time Emits multiple values over a period of time(stream of values ranging from 0 to multiple) Eager in nature; they are going to be called immediately Lazy in nature; they require subscription to be invoked Promise is always asynchronous even though it resolved immediately Observable can be either synchronous or asynchronous Doesn't provide any operators Provides operators such as map, forEach, filter, reduce, retry, and retryWhen etc Cannot be canceled Canceled by using unsubscribe() method -
Heap(Or memory heap) is the memory location where objects are stored when we define variables. i.e, This is the place where all the memory allocations and de-allocation take place. Both heap and call-stack are two containers of JS runtime. Whenever runtime comes across variables and function declarations in the code it stores them in the Heap.
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Event Table is a data structure that stores and keeps track of all the events which will be executed asynchronously like after some time interval or after the resolution of some API requests. i.e Whenever you call a setTimeout function or invoke async operation, it is added to the Event Table. It doesn't not execute functions on it’s own. The main purpose of the event table is to keep track of events and send them to the Event Queue as shown in the below diagram.
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Microtask Queue is the new queue where all the tasks initiated by promise objects get processed before the callback queue. The microtasks queue are processed before the next rendering and painting jobs. But if these microtasks are running for a long time then it leads to visual degradation.
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A shim is a library that brings a new API to an older environment, using only the means of that environment. It isn't necessarily restricted to a web application. For example, es5-shim.js is used to emulate ES5 features on older browsers (mainly pre IE9). Whereas polyfill is a piece of code (or plugin) that provides the technology that you, the developer, expect the browser to provide natively. In a simple sentence, A polyfill is a shim for a browser API.
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In JavaScript, primitive types include boolean, string, number, BigInt, null, Symbol and undefined. Whereas non-primitive types include the Objects. But you can easily identify them with the below function,
var myPrimitive = 30; var myNonPrimitive = {}; function isPrimitive(val) { return Object(val) !== val; } isPrimitive(myPrimitive); isPrimitive(myNonPrimitive);
If the value is a primitive data type, the Object constructor creates a new wrapper object for the value. But If the value is a non-primitive data type (an object), the Object constructor will give the same object.
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Babel is a JavaScript transpiler to convert ECMAScript 2015+ code into a backwards compatible version of JavaScript in current and older browsers or environments. Some of the main features are listed below,
- Transform syntax
- Polyfill features that are missing in your target environment (using @babel/polyfill)
- Source code transformations (or codemods)
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Node is a single thread, but some of the functions included in the Node.js standard library(e.g, fs module functions) are not single threaded. i.e, Their logic runs outside of the Node.js single thread to improve the speed and performance of a program.
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Some of the most common use cases of observables are web sockets with push notifications, user input changes, repeating intervals, etc
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RxJS (Reactive Extensions for JavaScript) is a library for implementing reactive programming using observables that makes it easier to compose asynchronous or callback-based code. It also provides utility functions for creating and working with observables.
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The functions which are created with
Function constructordo not create closures to their creation contexts but they are always created in the global scope. i.e, the function can access its own local variables and global scope variables only. Whereas function declarations can access outer function variables(closures) too.Let's see this difference with an example,
Function Constructor:
var a = 100; function createFunction() { var a = 200; return new Function('return a;'); } console.log(createFunction()()); // 100
Function declaration:
var a = 100; function createFunction() { var a = 200; return function func() { return a; } } console.log(createFunction()()); // 200
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Short circuit conditions are meant for condensed way of writing simple if statements. Let's demonstrate the scenario using an example. If you would like to login to a portal with an authentication condition, the expression would be as below,
if (authenticate) { loginToPorta(); }
Since the javascript logical operators evaluated from left to right, the above expression can be simplified using && logical operator
authenticate && loginToPorta();
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The length property of an array is useful to resize or empty an array quickly. Let's apply length property on number array to resize the number of elements from 5 to 2,
var array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; console.log(array.length); // 5 array.length = 2; console.log(array.length); // 2 console.log(array); // [1,2]
and the array can be emptied too
var array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; array.length = 0; console.log(array.length); // 0 console.log(array); // []
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An Observable is basically a function that can return a stream of values either synchronously or asynchronously to an observer over time. The consumer can get the value by calling
subscribe()method. Let's look at a simple example of an Observableimport { Observable } from 'rxjs'; const observable = new Observable(observer => { setTimeout(() => { observer.next('Message from a Observable!'); }, 3000); }); observable.subscribe(value => console.log(value));
Note: Observables are not part of the JavaScript language yet but they are being proposed to be added to the language
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The main difference between function declarations and class declarations is
hoisting. The function declarations are hoisted but not class declarations.Classes:
const user = new User(); // ReferenceError class User {}
Constructor Function:
const user = new User(); // No error function User() { }
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An async function is a function declared with the
asynckeyword which enables asynchronous, promise-based behavior to be written in a cleaner style by avoiding promise chains. These functions can contain zero or moreawaitexpressions.Let's take a below async function example,
async function logger() { let data = await fetch('http://someapi.com/users'); // pause until fetch returns console.log(data) } logger();
It is basically syntax sugar over ES2015 promises and generators.
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While using asynchronous code, JavaScript’s ES6 promises can make your life a lot easier without having callback pyramids and error handling on every second line. But Promises have some pitfalls and the biggest one is swallowing errors by default.
Let's say you expect to print an error to the console for all the below cases,
Promise.resolve('promised value').then(function() { throw new Error('error'); }); Promise.reject('error value').catch(function() { throw new Error('error'); }); new Promise(function(resolve, reject) { throw new Error('error'); });
But there are many modern JavaScript environments that won't print any errors. You can fix this problem in different ways,
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Add catch block at the end of each chain: You can add catch block to the end of each of your promise chains
Promise.resolve('promised value').then(function() { throw new Error('error'); }).catch(function(error) { console.error(error.stack); });
But it is quite difficult to type for each promise chain and verbose too.
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Add done method: You can replace first solution's then and catch blocks with done method
Promise.resolve('promised value').done(function() { throw new Error('error'); });
Let's say you want to fetch data using HTTP and later perform processing on the resulting data asynchronously. You can write
doneblock as below,getDataFromHttp() .then(function(result) { return processDataAsync(result); }) .done(function(processed) { displayData(processed); });
In future, if the processing library API changed to synchronous then you can remove
doneblock as below,getDataFromHttp() .then(function(result) { return displayData(processDataAsync(result)); })
and then you forgot to add
doneblock tothenblock leads to silent errors. -
Extend ES6 Promises by Bluebird: Bluebird extends the ES6 Promises API to avoid the issue in the second solution. This library has a “default” onRejection handler which will print all errors from rejected Promises to stderr. After installation, you can process unhandled rejections
Promise.onPossiblyUnhandledRejection(function(error){ throw error; });
and discard a rejection, just handle it with an empty catch
Promise.reject('error value').catch(function() {});
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Deno is a simple, modern and secure runtime for JavaScript and TypeScript that uses V8 JavaScript engine and the Rust programming language.
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By default, plain objects are not iterable. But you can make the object iterable by defining a
Symbol.iteratorproperty on it.Let's demonstrate this with an example,
const collection = { one: 1, two: 2, three: 3, [Symbol.iterator]() { const values = Object.keys(this); let i = 0; return { next: () => { return { value: this[values[i++]], done: i > values.length } } }; } }; const iterator = collection[Symbol.iterator](); console.log(iterator.next()); // → {value: 1, done: false} console.log(iterator.next()); // → {value: 2, done: false} console.log(iterator.next()); // → {value: 3, done: false} console.log(iterator.next()); // → {value: undefined, done: true}
The above process can be simplified using a generator function,
const collection = { one: 1, two: 2, three: 3, [Symbol.iterator]: function * () { for (let key in this) { yield this[key]; } } }; const iterator = collection[Symbol.iterator](); console.log(iterator.next()); // {value: 1, done: false} console.log(iterator.next()); // {value: 2, done: false} console.log(iterator.next()); // {value: 3, done: false} console.log(iterator.next()); // {value: undefined, done: true}
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First, we should know about tail call before talking about "Proper Tail Call". A tail call is a subroutine or function call performed as the final action of a calling function. Whereas Proper tail call(PTC) is a technique where the program or code will not create additional stack frames for a recursion when the function call is a tail call.
For example, the below classic or head recursion of factorial function relies on stack for each step. Each step need to be processed upto
n * factorial(n - 1)function factorial(n) { if (n === 0) { return 1 } return n * factorial(n - 1) } console.log(factorial(5)); //120
But if you use Tail recursion functions, they keep passing all the necessary data it needs down the recursion without relying on the stack.
function factorial(n, acc = 1) { if (n === 0) { return acc } return factorial(n - 1, n * acc) } console.log(factorial(5)); //120
The above pattern returns the same output as the first one. But the accumulator keeps track of total as an argument without using stack memory on recursive calls.
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If you don't know if a value is a promise or not, wrapping the value as
Promise.resolve(value)which returns a promisefunction isPromise(object){ if(Promise && Promise.resolve){ return Promise.resolve(object) == object; }else{ throw "Promise not supported in your environment" } } var i = 1; var promise = new Promise(function(resolve,reject){ resolve() }); console.log(isPromise(i)); // false console.log(isPromise(p)); // true
Another way is to check for
.then()handler typefunction isPromise(value) { return Boolean(value && typeof value.then === 'function'); } var i = 1; var promise = new Promise(function(resolve,reject){ resolve() }); console.log(isPromise(i)) // false console.log(isPromise(promise)); // true
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You can use
new.targetpseudo-property to detect whether a function was called as a constructor(using the new operator) or as a regular function call.- If a constructor or function invoked using the new operator, new.target returns a reference to the constructor or function.
- For function calls, new.target is undefined.
function Myfunc() { if (new.target) { console.log('called with new'); } else { console.log('not called with new'); } } new Myfunc(); // called with new Myfunc(); // not called with new Myfunc.call({}); not called with new
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There are three main differences between arguments object and rest parameters
- The arguments object is an array-like but not an array. Whereas the rest parameters are array instances.
- The arguments object does not support methods such as sort, map, forEach, or pop. Whereas these methods can be used in rest parameters.
- The rest parameters are only the ones that haven’t been given a separate name, while the arguments object contains all arguments passed to the function
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Rest parameter collects all remaining elements into an array. Whereas Spread operator allows iterables( arrays / objects / strings ) to be expanded into single arguments/elements. i.e, Rest parameter is opposite to the spread operator.
-
There are five kinds of generators,
-
Generator function declaration:
function* myGenFunc() { yield 1; yield 2; yield 3; } const genObj = myGenFunc();
-
Generator function expressions:
const myGenFunc = function* () { yield 1; yield 2; yield 3; }; const genObj = myGenFunc();
-
Generator method definitions in object literals:
const myObj = { * myGeneratorMethod() { yield 1; yield 2; yield 3; } }; const genObj = myObj.myGeneratorMethod();
-
Generator method definitions in class:
class MyClass { * myGeneratorMethod() { yield 1; yield 2; yield 3; } } const myObject = new MyClass(); const genObj = myObject.myGeneratorMethod();
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Generator as a computed property:
const SomeObj = { *[Symbol.iterator] () { yield 1; yield 2; yield 3; } } console.log(Array.from(SomeObj)); // [ 1, 2, 3 ]
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Below are the list of built-in iterables in javascript,
- Arrays and TypedArrays
- Strings: Iterate over each character or Unicode code-points
- Maps: iterate over its key-value pairs
- Sets: iterates over their elements
- arguments: An array-like special variable in functions
- DOM collection such as NodeList
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Both for...in and for...of statements iterate over js data structures. The only difference is over what they iterate:
- for..in iterates over all enumerable property keys of an object
- for..of iterates over the values of an iterable object.
Let's explain this difference with an example,
let arr = ['a', 'b', 'c']; arr.newProp = 'newVlue'; // key are the property keys for (let key in arr) { console.log(key); } // value are the property values for (let value of arr) { console.log(value); }
Since for..in loop iterates over the keys of the object, the first loop logs 0, 1, 2 and newProp while iterating over the array object. The for..of loop iterates over the values of a arr data structure and logs a, b, c in the console.
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The Instance properties must be defined inside of class methods. For example, name and age properties defined insider constructor as below,
class Person { constructor(name, age) { this.name = name; this.age = age; } }
But Static(class) and prototype data properties must be defined outside of the ClassBody declaration. Let's assign the age value for Person class as below,
Person.staticAge = 30; Person.prototype.prototypeAge = 40;
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- isNaN: The global function
isNaNconverts the argument to a Number and returns true if the resulting value is NaN. - Number.isNaN: This method does not convert the argument. But it returns true when the type is a Number and value is NaN.
Let's see the difference with an example,
isNaN(‘hello’); // true Number.isNaN('hello'); // false
- isNaN: The global function
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Immediately Invoked Function Expressions(IIFE) requires a pair of parenthesis to wrap the function which contains set of statements.
(function(dt) { console.log(dt.toLocaleTimeString()); })(new Date());
Since both IIFE and void operator discard the result of an expression, you can avoid the extra brackets using
void operatorfor IIFE as below,void function(dt) { console.log(dt.toLocaleTimeString()); }(new Date());
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You might have seen expressions used in switch condition but it is also possible to use for switch cases by assigning true value for the switch condition. Let's see the weather condition based on temparature as an example,
const weather = function getWeather(temp) { switch(true) { case temp < 0: return 'freezing'; case temp < 10: return 'cold'; case temp < 24: return 'cool'; default: return 'unknown'; } }(10);
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The easiest and safest way to ignore promise errors is void that error. This approach is ESLint friendly too.
await promise.catch(e => void e);
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You can add CSS styling to the console output using the CSS format content specifier %c. The console string message can be appended after the specifier and CSS style in another argument. Let's print the red the color text using console.log and CSS specifier as below,
console.log("%cThis is a red text", "color:red");
It is also possible to add more styles for the content. For example, the font-size can be modified for the above text
console.log("%cThis is a red text with bigger font", "color:red; font-size:20px");
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It is a logical operator that returns its right-hand side operand when its left-hand side operand is null or undefined, and otherwise returns its left-hand side operand. This can be contrasted with the logical OR (||) operator, which returns the right-hand side operand if the left operand is any falsy value, not only null or undefined.
console.log(null ?? true); // true console.log(false ?? true); // false console.log(undefined ?? true); // true
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The
console.group()can be used to group related log messages to be able to easily read the logs and use console.groupEnd()to close the group. Along with this, you can also nest groups which allows to output message in hierarchical manner.For example, if you’re logging a user’s details:
console.group('User Details'); console.log('name: Sudheer Jonna'); console.log('job: Software Developer'); // Nested Group console.group('Address'); console.log('Street: Commonwealth'); console.log('City: Los Angeles'); console.log('State: California'); console.groupEnd();
You can also use
console.groupCollapsed()instead ofconsole.group()if you want the groups to be collapsed by default. -
An array contians items at each index starting from first(0) to last(array.length - 1) is called as Dense array. Whereas if at least one item is missing at any index, the array is called as sparse.
Let's see the below two kind of arrays,
const avengers = ['Ironman', 'Hulk', 'CaptainAmerica']; console.log(avengers[0]); // 'Ironman' console.log(avengers[1]); // 'Hulk' console.log(avengers[2]); // 'CaptainAmerica' console.log(avengers.length); // 3 const justiceLeague = ['Superman', 'Aquaman', ,'Batman']; console.log(justiceLeague[0]); // 'Superman' console.log(justiceLeague[1]); // 'Aquaman' console.log(justiceLeague[2]); // undefined console.log(justiceLeague[3]); // 'Batman' console.log(justiceLeague.length); // 4
-
There are 4 different ways to create sparse arrays in JavaScript
- Array literal: Omit a value when using the array literal
const justiceLeague = ['Superman', 'Aquaman', ,'Batman']; console.log(justiceLeague); // ['Superman', 'Aquaman', empty ,'Batman']
- Array() constructor: Invoking Array(length) or new Array(length)
const array = Array(3); console.log(array); // [empty, empty ,empty]
- Delete operator: Using delete array[index] operator on the array
const justiceLeague = ['Superman', 'Aquaman', 'Batman']; delete justiceLeague[1]; console.log(justiceLeague); // ['Superman', empty, ,'Batman']
- Increase length property: Increasing length property of an array
const justiceLeague = ['Superman', 'Aquaman', 'Batman']; justiceLeague.length = 5; console.log(justiceLeague); // ['Superman', 'Aquaman', 'Batman', empty, empty]
- Array literal: Omit a value when using the array literal
var car = new Vehicle("Honda", "white", "2010", "UK");
console.log(car);
function Vehicle(model, color, year, country) {
this.model = model;
this.color = color;
this.year = year;
this.country = country;
}- 1: Undefined
- 2: ReferenceError
- 3: null
- 4: {model: "Honda", color: "white", year: "2010", country: "UK"}
Answer
The function declarations are hoisted similar to any variables. So the placement for Vehicle function declaration doesn't make any difference.
function foo() {
let x = y = 0;
x++;
y++;
return x;
}
console.log(foo(), typeof x, typeof y);- 1: 1, undefined and undefined
- 2: ReferenceError: X is not defined
- 3: 1, undefined and number
- 4: 1, number and number
Answer
Of course the return value of foo() is 1 due to the increment operator. But the statement let x = y = 0 declares a local variable x. Whereas y declared as a global variable accidentally. This statement is equivalent to,
let x;
window.y = 0;
x = window.y;Since the block scoped variable x is undefined outside of the function, the type will be undefined too. Whereas the global variable y is available outside the function, the value is 0 and type is number.
function main(){
console.log('A');
setTimeout(
function print(){ console.log('B'); }
,0);
console.log('C');
}
main();- 1: A, B and C
- 2: B, A and C
- 3: A and C
- 4: A, C and B
Answer
The statements order is based on the event loop mechanism. The order of statements follows the below order,
- At first, the main function is pushed to the stack.
- Then the browser pushes the fist statement of the main function( i.e, A's console.log) to the stack, executing and popping out immediately.
- But
setTimeoutstatement moved to Browser API to apply the delay for callback. - In the meantime, C's console.log added to stack, executed and popped out.
- The callback of
setTimeoutmoved from Browser API to message queue. - The
mainfunction popped out from stack because there are no statements to execute - The callback moved from message queue to the stack since the stack is empty.
- The console.log for B is added to the stack and display on the console.
console.log(0.1 + 0.2 === 0.3);- 1: false
- 2: true
Answer
This is due to the float point math problem. Since the floating point numbers are encoded in binary format, the addition operations on them lead to rounding errors. Hence, the comparison of floating points doesn't give expected results. You can find more details about the explanation here 0.30000000000000004.com/
var y = 1;
if (function f(){}) {
y += typeof f;
}
console.log(y);- 1: 1function
- 2: 1object
- 3: ReferenceError
- 4: 1undefined
Answer
The main points in the above code snippets are,
- You can see function expression instead function declaration inside if statement. So it always returns true.
- Since it is not declared(or assigned) anywhere, f is undefined and typeof f is undefined too.
In other words, it is same as
var y = 1;
if ('foo') {
y += typeof f;
}
console.log(y);Note: It returns 1object for MS Edge browser
function foo() {
return
{
message: "Hello World"
};
}
console.log(foo());- 1: Hello World
- 2: Object {message: "Hello World"}
- 3: Undefined
- 4: SyntaxError
Answer
This is a semicolon issue. Normally semicolons are optional in JavaScript. So if there are any statements(in this case, return) missing semicolon, it is automatically inserted immediately. Hence, the function returned as undefined.
Whereas if the opening curly brace is along with the return keyword then the function is going to be returned as expected.
function foo() {
return {
message: "Hello World"
};
}
console.log(foo()); // {message: "Hello World"}var myChars = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
delete myChars[0];
console.log(myChars);
console.log(myChars[0]);
console.log(myChars.length);- 1: [empty, 'b', 'c', 'd'], empty, 3
- 2: [null, 'b', 'c', 'd'], empty, 3
- 3: [empty, 'b', 'c', 'd'], undefined, 4
- 4: [null, 'b', 'c', 'd'], undefined, 4
Answer
The delete operator will delete the object property but it will not reindex the array or change its length. So the number or elements or length of the array won't be changed.
If you try to print myChars then you can observe that it doesn't set an undefined value, rather the property is removed from the array. The newer versions of Chrome use empty instead of undefined to make the difference a bit clearer.
var array1 = new Array(3);
console.log(array1);
var array2 = [];
array2[2] = 100;
console.log(array2);
var array3 = [,,,];
console.log(array3);- 1: [undefined × 3], [undefined × 2, 100], [undefined × 3]
- 2: [empty × 3], [empty × 2, 100], [empty × 3]
- 3: [null × 3], [null × 2, 100], [null × 3]
- 4: [], [100], []
Answer
The latest chrome versions display sparse array(they are filled with holes) using this empty x n notation. Whereas the older versions have undefined x n notation.
Note: The latest version of FF displays n empty slots notation.
const obj = {
prop1: function() { return 0 },
prop2() { return 1 },
['prop' + 3]() { return 2 }
}
console.log(obj.prop1());
console.log(obj.prop2());
console.log(obj.prop3());- 1: 0, 1, 2
- 2: 0, { return 1 }, 2
- 3: 0, { return 1 }, { return 2 }
- 4: 0, 1, undefined
Answer
ES6 provides method definitions and property shorthands for objects. So both prop2 and prop3 are treated as regular function values.
console.log(1 < 2 < 3);
console.log(3 > 2 > 1);- 1: true, true
- 2: true, false
- 3: SyntaxError, SyntaxError,
- 4: false, false
Answer
The important point is that if the statement contains the same operators(e.g, < or >) then it can be evaluated from left to right. The first statement follows the below order,
- console.log(1 < 2 < 3);
- console.log(true < 3);
- console.log(1 < 3); // True converted as
1during comparison - True
Whereas the second statement follows the below order,
- console.log(3 > 2 > 1);
- console.log(true > 1);
- console.log(1 > 1); // False converted as
0during comparison - False
function printNumbers(first, second, first) {
console.log(first, second, first);
}
printNumbers(1, 2, 3);- 1: 1, 2, 3
- 2: 3, 2, 3
- 3: SyntaxError: Duplicate parameter name not allowed in this context
- 4: 1, 2, 1
Answer
In non-strict mode, the regular JavaScript functions allow duplicate named parameters. The above code snippet has duplicate parameters on 1st and 3rd parameters. The value of the first parameter is mapped to the third argument which is passed to the function. Hence, the 3rd argument overrides the first parameter.
Note: In strict mode, duplicate parameters will throw a Syntax Error.
const printNumbersArrow = (first, second, first) => {
console.log(first, second, first);
}
printNumbersArrow(1, 2, 3);- 1: 1, 2, 3
- 2: 3, 2, 3
- 3: SyntaxError: Duplicate parameter name not allowed in this context
- 4: 1, 2, 1
Answer
Unlike regular functions, the arrow functions doesn't not allow duplicate parameters in either strict or non-strict mode. So you can see SyntaxError in the console.
const arrowFunc = () => arguments.length;
console.log(arrowFunc(1, 2, 3));- 1: ReferenceError: arguments is not defined
- 2: 3
- 3: undefined
- 4: null
Answer
Arrow functions do not have an arguments, super, this, or new.target bindings. So any reference to arguments variable tries to resolve to a binding in a lexically enclosing environment. In this case, the arguments variable is not defined outside of the arrow function. Hence, you will receive a reference error.
Where as the normal function provides the number of arguments passed to the function
const func = function () {
return arguments.length;
}
console.log(func(1, 2, 3));But If you still want to use an arrow function then rest operator on arguments provides the expected arguments
const arrowFunc = (...args) => args.length;
console.log(arrowFunc(1, 2, 3));console.log( String.prototype.trimLeft.name === 'trimLeft' );
console.log( String.prototype.trimLeft.name === 'trimStart' );- 1: True, False
- 2: False, True
Answer
In order to be consistent with functions like String.prototype.padStart, the standard method name for trimming the whitespaces is considered as trimStart. Due to web web compatibility reasons, the old method name 'trimLeft' still acts as an alias for 'trimStart'. Hence, the prototype for 'trimLeft' is always 'trimStart'
console.log(Math.max());- 1: undefined
- 2: Infinity
- 3: 0
- 4: -Infinity
Answer
-Infinity is the initial comparant because almost every other value is bigger. So when no arguments are provided, -Infinity is going to be returned. Note: Zero number of arguments is a valid case.
console.log(10 == [10]);
console.log(10 == [[[[[[[10]]]]]]]);- 1: True, True
- 2: True, False
- 3: False, False
- 4: False, True
Answer
As per the comparison algorithm in the ECMAScript specification(ECMA-262), the above expression converted into JS as below
10 === Number([10].valueOf().toString()) // 10So it doesn't matter about number brackets([]) around the number, it is always converted to a number in the expression.
console.log(10 + '10');
console.log(10 - '10');- 1: 20, 0
- 2: 1010, 0
- 3: 1010, 10-10
- 4: NaN, NaN
Answer
The concatenation operator(+) is applicable for both number and string types. So if any operand is string type then both operands concatenated as strings. Whereas subtract(-) operator tries to convert the operands as number type.
console.log([0] == false);
if([0]) {
console.log("I'm True");
} else {
console.log("I'm False");
}- 1: True, I'm True
- 2: True, I'm False
- 3: False, I'm True
- 4: False, I'm False
Answer
In comparison operators, the expression [0] converted to Number([0].valueOf().toString()) which is resolved to false. Whereas [0] just becomes a truthy value without any conversion because there is no comparison operator.
console.log([1, 2] + [3, 4]);- 1: [1,2,3,4]
- 2: [1,2][3,4]
- 3: SyntaxError
- 4: 1,23,4
Answer
The + operator is not meant or defined for arrays. So it converts arrays into strings and concatenates them.
const numbers = new Set([1, 1, 2, 3, 4]);
console.log(numbers);
const browser = new Set('Firefox');
console.log(browser);- 1: {1, 2, 3, 4}, {"F", "i", "r", "e", "f", "o", "x"}
- 2: {1, 2, 3, 4}, {"F", "i", "r", "e", "o", "x"}
- 3: [1, 2, 3, 4], ["F", "i", "r", "e", "o", "x"]
- 4: {1, 1, 2, 3, 4}, {"F", "i", "r", "e", "f", "o", "x"}
Answer
Since Set object is a collection of unique values, it won't allow duplicate values in the collection. At the same time, it is case sensitive data structure.
console.log(NaN === NaN);- 1: True
- 2: False
Answer
JavaScript follows IEEE 754 spec standards. As per this spec, NaNs are never equal for floating-point numbers.
let numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, NaN];
console.log(numbers.indexOf(NaN));- 1: 4
- 2: NaN
- 3: SyntaxError
- 4: -1
Answer
The indexOf uses strict equality operator(===) internally and NaN === NaN evaluates to false. Since indexOf won't be able to find NaN inside an array, it returns -1 always.
But you can use Array.prototype.findIndex method to find out the index of NaN in an array or You can use Array.prototype.includes to check if NaN is present in an array or not.
let numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, NaN];
console.log(numbers.findIndex(Number.isNaN)); // 4
console.log(numbers.includes(NaN)); // truelet [a, ...b,] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
console.log(a, b);- 1: 1, [2, 3, 4, 5]
- 2: 1, {2, 3, 4, 5}
- 3: SyntaxError
- 4: 1, [2, 3, 4]
Answer
When using rest parameters, trailing commas are not allowed and will throw a SyntaxError. If you remove the trailing comma then it displays 1st answer
let [a, ...b] = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
console.log(a, b); // 1, [2, 3, 4, 5]async function func() {
return 10;
}
console.log(func());- 1: Promise {<fulfilled>: 10}
- 2: 10
- 3: SyntaxError
- 4: Promise {<rejected>: 10}
Answer
Async functions always return a promise. But even if the return value of an async function is not explicitly a promise, it will be implicitly wrapped in a promise. The above async function is equivalent to below expression,
function func() {
return Promise.resolve(10)
}async function func() {
await 10;
}
console.log(func());- 1: Promise {<fulfilled>: 10}
- 2: 10
- 3: SyntaxError
- 4: Promise {<resolved>: undefined}
Answer
The await expression returns value 10 with promise resolution and the code after each await expression can be treated as existing in a .then callback. In this case, there is no return expression at the end of the function. Hence, the default return value of undefined is returned as the resolution of the promise. The above async function is equivalent to below expression,
function func() {
return Promise.resolve(10).then(() => undefined)
}function delay() {
return new Promise(resolve => setTimeout(resolve, 2000));
}
async function delayedLog(item) {
await delay();
console.log(item);
}
async function processArray(array) {
array.forEach(item => {
await delayedLog(item);
})
}
processArray([1, 2, 3, 4]);- 1: SyntaxError
- 2: 1, 2, 3, 4
- 3: 4, 4, 4, 4
- 4: 4, 3, 2, 1
Answer
Even though “processArray” is an async function, the anonymous function that we use for forEach is synchronous. If you use await inside a synchronous function then it throws a syntax error.
function delay() {
return new Promise(resolve => setTimeout(resolve, 2000));
}
async function delayedLog(item) {
await delay();
console.log(item);
}
async function process(array) {
array.forEach(async (item) => {
await delayedLog(item);
});
console.log('Process completed!');
}
process([1, 2, 3, 5]);- 1: 1 2 3 5 and Process completed!
- 2: 5 5 5 5 and Process completed!
- 3: Process completed! and 5 5 5 5
- 4: Process completed! and 1 2 3 5
Answer
The forEach method will not wait until all items are finished but it just runs the tasks and goes next. Hence, the last statement is displayed first followed by a sequence of promise resolutions.
But you control the array sequence using for..of loop,
async function processArray(array) {
for (const item of array) {
await delayedLog(item);
}
console.log('Process completed!');
}var set = new Set();
set.add("+0").add("-0").add(NaN).add(undefined).add(NaN);;
console.log(set);- 1: Set(4) {"+0", "-0", NaN, undefined}
- 2: Set(3) {"+0", NaN, undefined}
- 3: Set(5) {"+0", "-0", NaN, undefined, NaN}
- 4: Set(4) {"+0", NaN, undefined, NaN}
Answer
Set has few exceptions from equality check,
- All NaN values are equal
- Both +0 and -0 considered as different values
const sym1 = Symbol('one');
const sym2 = Symbol('one');
const sym3 = Symbol.for('two');
const sym4 = Symbol.for('two');
cnsooe.log(sym1 === sym2, sym3 === sym4);- 1: true, true
- 2: true, false
- 3: false, true
- 4: false, false
Answer
Symbol follows below conventions,
- Every symbol value returned from Symbol() is unique irrespective of the optional string.
Symbol.for()function creates a symbol in a global symbol registry list. But it doesn't necessarily create a new symbol on every call, it checks first if a symbol with the given key is already present in the registry and returns the symbol if it is found. Otherwise a new symbol created in the registry.
Note: The symbol description is just useful for debugging purposes.
const sym1 = new Symbol('one');
console.log(sym1);- 1: SyntaxError
- 2: one
- 3: Symbol('one')
- 4: Symbol
Answer
Symbol is a just a standard function and not an object constructor(unlike other primitives new Boolean, new String and new Number). So if you try to call it with the new operator will result in a TypeError
let myNumber = 100;
let myString = '100';
if (!typeof myNumber === "string") {
console.log("It is not a string!");
} else {
console.log("It is a string!");
}
if (!typeof myString === "number"){
console.log("It is not a number!")
} else {
console.log("It is a number!");
}- 1: SyntaxError
- 2: It is not a string!, It is not a number!
- 3: It is not a string!, It is a number!
- 4: It is a string!, It is a number!
Answer
The return value of typeof myNumber (OR) typeof myString is always the truthy value (either "number" or "string"). Since ! operator converts the value to a boolean value, the value of both !typeof myNumber or !typeof myString is always false. Hence the if condition fails and control goes to else block.
console.log(JSON.stringify({ myArray: ['one', undefined, function(){}, Symbol('')] }));
console.log(JSON.stringify({ [Symbol.for('one')]: 'one' }, [Symbol.for('one')]));- 1: {"myArray":['one', undefined, {}, Symbol]}, {}
- 2: {"myArray":['one', null,null,null]}, {}
- 3: {"myArray":['one', null,null,null]}, "{ [Symbol.for('one')]: 'one' }, [Symbol.for('one')]"
- 4: {"myArray":['one', undefined, function(){}, Symbol('')]}, {}
Answer
The symbols has below constraints,
- The undefined, Functions, and Symbols are not valid JSON values. So those values are either omitted (in an object) or changed to null (in an array). Hence, it returns null values for the value array.
- All Symbol-keyed properties will be completely ignored. Hence it returns an empty object({}).
class A {
constructor() {
console.log(new.target.name)
}
}
class B extends A { constructor() { super() } }
new A();
new B();- 1: A, A
- 2: A, B
Answer
Using constructors, new.target refers to the constructor (points to the class definition of class which is initialized) that was directly invoked by new. This also applies to the case if the constructor is in a parent class and was delegated from a child constructor.
const [x, ...y,] = [1, 2, 3, 4];
console.log(x, y);- 1: 1, [2, 3, 4]
- 2: 1, [2, 3]
- 3: 1, [2]
- 4: SyntaxError
Answer
It throws a syntax error because the rest element should not have a trailing comma. You should always consider using a rest operator as the last element.
const {a: x = 10, b: y = 20} = {a: 30};
console.log(x);
console.log(y);- 1: 30, 20
- 2: 10, 20
- 3: 10, undefined
- 4: 30, undefined
Answer
The object property follows below rules,
- The object properties can be retrieved and assigned to a variable with a different name
- The property assigned a default value when the retrieved value is
undefined
function area({length = 10, width = 20}) {
console.log(length*width);
}
area();- 1: 200
- 2: Error
- 3: undefined
- 4: 0
Answer
If you leave out the right-hand side assignment for the destructuring object, the function will look for at least one argument to be supplied when invoked. Otherwise you will receive an error Error: Cannot read property 'length' of undefined as mentioned above.
You can avoid the error with either of the below changes,
- Pass at least an empty object:
function area({length = 10, width = 20}) {
console.log(length*width);
}
area({});- Assign default empty object:
function area({length = 10, width = 20} = {}) {
console.log(length*width);
}
area();const props = [
{ id: 1, name: 'John'},
{ id: 2, name: 'Jack'},
{ id: 3, name: 'Tom'}
];
const [,, { name }] = props;
console.log(name);- 1: Tom
- 2: Error
- 3: undefined
- 4: John
Answer
It is possible to combine Array and Object destructuring. In this case, the third element in the array props accessed first followed by name property in the object.
function checkType(num = 1) {
console.log(typeof num);
}
checkType();
checkType(undefined);
checkType('');
checkType(null);- 1: number, undefined, string, object
- 2: undefined, undefined, string, object
- 3: number, number, string, object
- 4: number, number, number, number
Answer
If the function argument is set implicitly(not passing argument) or explicitly to undefined, the value of the argument is the default parameter. Whereas for other falsy values('' or null), the value of the argument is passed as a parameter.
Hence, the result of function calls categorized as below,
- The first two function calls logs number type since the type of default value is number
- The type of '' and null values are string and object type respectively.
function add(item, items = []) {
items.push(item);
return items;
}
console.log(add('Orange'));
console.log(add('Apple'));- 1: ['Orange'], ['Orange', 'Apple']
- 2: ['Orange'], ['Apple']
Answer
Since the default argument is evaluated at call time, a new object is created each time the function is called. So in this case, the new array is created and an element pushed to the default empty array.
function greet(greeting, name, message = greeting + ' ' + name) {
console.log([greeting, name, message]);
}
greet('Hello', 'John');
greet('Hello', 'John', 'Good morning!');- 1: SyntaxError
- 2: ['Hello', 'John', 'Hello John'], ['Hello', 'John', 'Good morning!']
Answer
Since parameters defined earlier are available to later default parameters, this code snippet doesn't throw any error.
function outer(f = inner()) {
function inner() { return 'Inner' }
}
outer();- 1: ReferenceError
- 2: Inner
Answer
The functions and variables declared in the function body cannot be referred from default value parameter initializers. If you still try to access, it throws a run-time ReferenceError(i.e, inner is not defined).
function myFun(x, y, ...manyMoreArgs) {
console.log(manyMoreArgs)
}
myFun(1, 2, 3, 4, 5);
myFun(1, 2);- 1: [3, 4, 5], undefined
- 2: SyntaxError
- 3: [3, 4, 5], []
- 4: [3, 4, 5], [undefined]
Answer
The rest parameter is used to hold the remaining parameters of a function and it becomes an empty array if the argument is not provided.
const obj = {'key': 'value'};
const array = [...obj];
console.log(array);- 1: ['key', 'value']
- 2: TypeError
- 3: []
- 4: ['key']
Answer
Spread syntax can be applied only to iterable objects. By default, Objects are not iterable, but they become iterable when used in an Array, or with iterating functions such as map(), reduce(), and assign(). If you still try to do it, it still throws TypeError: obj is not iterable.
function* myGenFunc() {
yield 1;
yield 2;
yield 3;
}
var myGenObj = new myGenFunc;
console.log(myGenObj.next().value);- 1: 1
- 2: undefined
- 3: SyntaxError
- 4: TypeError
Answer
Generators are not constructible type. But if you still proceed to do, there will be an error saying "TypeError: myGenFunc is not a constructor"
function* yieldAndReturn() {
yield 1;
return 2;
yield 3;
}
var myGenObj = yieldAndReturn()
console.log(myGenObj.next());
console.log(myGenObj.next());
console.log(myGenObj.next());- 1: { value: 1, done: false }, { value: 2, done: true }, { value: undefined, done: true }
- 2: { value: 1, done: false }, { value: 2, done: false }, { value: undefined, done: true }
- 3: { value: 1, done: false }, { value: 2, done: true }, { value: 3, done: true }
- 4: { value: 1, done: false }, { value: 2, done: false }, { value: 3, done: true }
Answer
A return statement in a generator function will make the generator finish. If a value is returned, it will be set as the value property of the object and done property to true. When a generator is finished, subsequent next() calls return an object of this form: {value: undefined, done: true}.
const myGenerator = (function *(){
yield 1;
yield 2;
yield 3;
})();
for (const value of myGenerator) {
console.log(value);
break;
}
for (const value of myGenerator) {
console.log(value);
}- 1: 1,2,3 and 1,2,3
- 2: 1,2,3 and 4,5,6
- 3: 1 and 1
- 4: 1
Answer
The generator should not be re-used once the iterator is closed. i.e, Upon exiting a loop(on completion or using break & return), the generator is closed and trying to iterate over it again does not yield any more results. Hence, the second loop doesn't print any value.
const num = 0o38;
console.log(num);- 1: SyntaxError
- 2: 38
Answer
If you use an invalid number(outside of 0-7 range) in the octal literal, JavaScript will throw a SyntaxError. In ES5, it treats the octal literal as a decimal number.
const squareObj = new Square(10);
console.log(squareObj.area);
class Square {
constructor(length) {
this.length = length;
}
get area() {
return this.length * this.length;
}
set area(value) {
this.area = value;
}
}- 1: 100
- 2: ReferenceError
Answer
Unlike function declarations, class declarations are not hoisted. i.e, First You need to declare your class and then access it, otherwise it will throw a ReferenceError "Uncaught ReferenceError: Square is not defined".
Note: Class expressions also applies to the same hoisting restrictions of class declarations.
function Person() { }
Person.prototype.walk = function() {
return this;
}
Person.run = function() {
return this;
}
let user = new Person();
let walk = user.walk;
console.log(walk());
let run = Person.run;
console.log(run());- 1: undefined, undefined
- 2: Person, Person
- 3: SyntaxError
- 4: Window, Window
Answer
When a regular or prototype method is called without a value for this, the methods return an initial this value if the value is not undefined. Otherwise global window object will be returned. In our case, the initial this value is undefined so both methods return window objects.
class Vehicle {
constructor(name) {
this.name = name;
}
start() {
console.log(`${this.name} vehicle started`);
}
}
class Car extends Vehicle {
start() {
console.log(`${this.name} car started`);
super.start();
}
}
const car = new Car('BMW');
console.log(car.start());- 1: SyntaxError
- 2: BMW vehicle started, BMW car started
- 3: BMW car started, BMW vehicle started
- 4: BMW car started, BMW car started
Answer
The super keyword is used to call methods of a superclass. Unlike other languages the super invocation doesn't need to be a first statement. i.e, The statements will be executed in the same order of code.
const USER = {'age': 30};
USER.age = 25;
console.log(USER.age);- 1: 30
- 2: 25
- 3: Uncaught TypeError
- 4: SyntaxError
Answer
Even though we used constant variables, the content of it is an object and the object's contents (e.g properties) can be altered. Hence, the change is going to be valid in this case.
console.log('🙂' === '🙂');- 1: false
- 2: true
Answer
Emojis are unicodes and the unicode for smile symbol is "U+1F642". The unicode comparision of same emojies is equivalent to string comparison. Hence, the output is always true.
console.log(typeof typeof typeof true);- 1: string
- 2: boolean
- 3: NaN
- 4: number
Answer
The typeof operator on any primitive returns a string value. So even if you apply the chain of typeof operators on the return value, it is always string.
let zero = new Number(0);
if (zero) {
console.log("If");
} else {
console.log("Else");
}- 1: If
- 2: Else
- 3: NaN
- 4: SyntaxError
Answer
- The type of operator on new Number always returns object. i.e, typeof new Number(0) --> object.
- Objects are always truthy in if block
Hence the above code block always goes to if section.
let msg = "Good morning!!";
msg.name = "John";
console.log(msg.name);- 1: ""
- 2: Error
- 3: John
- 4: Undefined
Answer
It returns undefined for non-strict mode and returns Error for strict mode. In non-strict mode, the wrapper object is going to be created and get the mentioned property. But the object get disappeared after accessing the property in next line.
let count = 10;
(function innerFunc() {
if (count === 10) {
let count = 11;
console.log(count);
}
console.log(count);
})();- 1: 11, 10
- 2: 11, 11
- 3: 10, 11
- 4: 10, 10
Answer
11 and 10 is logged to the console.
The innerFunc is a closure which captures the count variable from the outerscope. i.e, 10. But the conditional has another local variable count which overwrites the ourter count variable. So the first console.log displays value 11.
Whereas the second console.log logs 10 by capturing the count variable from outerscope.
The questions provided in this repository are the summary of frequently asked questions across numerous companies. We cannot guarantee that these questions will actually be asked during your interview process, nor should you focus on memorizing all of them. The primary purpose is for you to get a sense of what some companies might ask — do not get discouraged if you don't know the answer to all of them — that is ok!
Good luck with your interview 😊
Click 
if you like the project. Pull Request are highly appreciated.
- CSS Coding Practice
- CSS3 Properties
- SCSS Interview Questions and Answers
- CSS Multiple Choice Questions
CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheets. CSS is used to define styles for web pages, including the design, layout and variations in display for different devices and screen sizes. CSS was intended to allow web professionals to separate the content and structure of a website's code from the visual design.
CSS can be used for document text styling — for example changing the color and size of headings and links. It can be used to create layout — for example turning a single column of text into a layout with a main content area and a sidebar for related information. It can even be used for effects such as animation.
Example
h1 {
color: red;
font-size: 5em;
}
p {
color: black;
}CSS is a rule or set of rules that describe the formatting (change of appearance) of individual elements on a web page. The rule consists of two parts: the selector and the next declaration block. The image below shows the structure (syntax) of the rule:
div {
color: blue;
text-align: justify;
}
- The first is always the selector, it tells the browser which element or elements of the web page will be styled.
- Next is the declaration block, which begins with the opening curly brace { and ends with the closing }, between the curly braces are specified formatting commands (declarations), which are used by the browser to stylize the selected selector element.
- Each declaration consists of two parts: the property and its value. The declaration must always end with a semicolon (;). You can omit the ; only at the end of the last declaration before the closing curly brace.
- A property is a formatting command that defines a specific style effect for an element. Each property has its own predefined set of values. After the property name, a colon is specified, which separates the property name from the valid value.
There are three ways to apply CSS to HTML: Inline, internal, and external.
Inline CSS is specified directly in the opening tag of the element you want it to apply to. It is entered into the style attribute within HTML. This allows CSS properties on a "per tag" basis.
Example
<p style="font-weight:bold;">Bold Font</p>This CSS type is not really recommended, as each HTML tag needs to be styled individually. However, inline CSS in HTML can be useful in some situations. For example, in cases where you don't have access to CSS files or need to apply styles for a single element only.
Internal or Embedded, styles are used for the whole page. Inside the head element, the style tags surround all of the styles for the page.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Internal CSS Example</title>
<style>
p {
color: red;
}
a {
color: blue;
}
</style>
...This CSS style is an effective method of styling a single page. However, using this style for multiple pages is time-consuming as you need to put CSS rules to every page of your website.
In external CSS rules are stored in a separate file. To refer to that file from the HTML page, add the link element (and its closing element within XHTML) to the head element. This CSS type is a more efficient method, especially for styling a large website. By editing one .css file, you can change your entire site at once.
style.css
p {
color: red;
}
a {
color: blue;
}<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>External CSS Example</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="style.css">
...The link element in the example has three attributes. The first, rel, tells the browser the type of the target of the link. The second, type, tells the browser what type of stylesheet it is. And the third, href, tells the browser under which URL to find the stylesheet.
The cascading in CSS refers to the fact that styling rules "cascade" down from several sources. This means that CSS has an inherent hierarchy and styles of a higher precedence will overwrite rules of a lower precedence.
Even the simplest HTML document may have three or more style sheets associated with it including:
- The browser's style sheet
- The user's style sheet
- The author's style sheet
Browsers apply style sheets to all web documents. Although these style sheets vary from browser to browser, they all have common characteristics such as black text, blue links, purple visited links etc. These are referred to as a "default" browser stylesheet.
As soon as you, the author, apply a style sheet to a document, it will override the browser's style sheet. This is because author style sheets will always override browser style sheets.
Most modern browsers allow users to set their own style sheets within their browser. These style sheets will override the browsers default style sheets - for that user only.
As soon as you apply a basic style sheet or an inline style to a page, you have added what is referred to as an "author style sheet". Everything you do, from choosing fonts, colours and laying out pages in CSS is done using author style sheets.
- Matches any element E whose attribute attr starts with the value val. In other words, the val matches the beginning of the attribute value.
E[attr^=val]
/* Example */
a[href^='http://sales.']{color: teal;}- Matches any element E whose attribute attr ends in val. In other words, the val matches the end of the attribute value.
E[attr$=val]
/* Example */
a[href$='.jsp']{color: purple;}- Matches any element E whose attribute attr matches val anywhere within the attribute. It is similar to E[attr~=val], except the val can be part of a word.
E[attr*=val]
/* Example */
img[src*='artwork']{
border-color: #C3B087 #FFF #FFF #C3B087;
}CSS2 supports user interaction pseudo-classes, namely :link, :visited, :hover, :active, and :focus.
A few more pseudo-class selectors were added in CSS3. One is the :root selector, which allows designers to point to the root element of a document.
:root{overflow:auto;}As a complement to the :first-child selector, the :last-child was added. With it one can select the last element named of a parent element.
div.article > p:last-child{font-style: italic;}A new user interaction pseudo-class selector was added, the :target selector.
<style>
span.notice:target { font-size: 2em; font-style: bold; }
</style>
<a href='#section2'>Section 2</a>
<p id='section2'>...</p>The negation pseudo-class selector, :not can be coupled with almost any other selector that has been implemented.
img:not([border]){ border: 1; }The color keyword list has been extended in the CSS3 color module to include 147 additional keyword colors (that are generally well supported), CSS3 also provides us with a number of other options: HSL, HSLA, RGBA and Opacity.
div.halfopaque {
background-color: rgb(0, 0, 0);
opacity: 0.5;
color: #000000;
}
div.halfalpha {
background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.5);
color: #000000;
}border-radius: 25px;box-shadow: 2px 5px 0 0 rgba(72,72,72,1);text-shadow: topOffset leftOffset blurRadius color;Syntax: background: linear-gradient(direction, color-stop1, color-stop2, ...);
/* Example */
#grad {
background: linear-gradient(to right, red , yellow);
}Syntax : background: radial-gradient(shape size at position, start-color, ..., last-color);
/* Example */
#grad {
background: radial-gradient(red, yellow, green);
}//Default
#grad {
background: radial-gradient(circle, red, yellow, green);
}//CircleIn CSS3, there's no need to include an element for every background image; it provides us with the ability to add more than one background image to any element, even to pseudo-elements.
background-image:
url(firstImage.jpg),
url(secondImage.gif),
url(thirdImage.png);A CSS selector is the part of a CSS rule set that actually selects the content you want to style.
i) Universal Selector: The universal selector works like a wild card character, selecting all elements on a page. Every HTML page is built on content placed within HTML tags. Each set of tags represents an element on the page.
* {
color: green;
font-size: 20px;
line-height: 25px;
}ii) Element Type Selector: This selector match one or more HTML elements of the same name.
ul {
list-style: none;
border: solid 1px #ccc;
}<ul>
<li>Fish</li>
<li>Apples</li>
<li>Cheese</li>
</ul>
<div class="example">
<p>Example paragraph text.</p>
</div>
<ul>
<li>Water</li>
<li>Juice</li>
<li>Maple Syrup</li>
</ul>iii) ID Selector: This selector matches any HTML element that has an ID attribute with the same value as that of the selector.
#container {
width: 960px;
margin: 0 auto;
}<div id="container"></div>iv) Class Selector: The class selector also matches all elements on the page that have their class attribute set to the same value as the class.
.box {
padding: 20px;
margin: 10px;
width: 240px;
}<div class="box"></div>v) Descendant Combinator: The descendant selector or, more accurately, the descendant combinator lets you combine two or more selectors so you can be more specific in your selection method.
#container .box {
float: left;
padding-bottom: 15px;
}This declaration block will apply to all elements that have a class of box that are inside an element with an ID of container. It’s worth noting that the .box element doesn’t have to be an immediate child: there could be another element wrapping .box, and the styles would still apply.
<div id="container">
<div class="box"></div>
<div class="box-2"></div>
</div>
<div class="box"></div>vi) Child Combinator: A selector that uses the child combinator is similar to a selector that uses a descendant combinator, except it only targets immediate child elements.
#container > .box {
float: left;
padding-bottom: 15px;
}The selector will match all elements that have a class of box and that are immediate children of the #container element. That means, unlike the descendant combinator, there can’t be another element wrapping .box—it has to be a direct child element.
<div id="container">
<div class="box"></div>
<div>
<div class="box"></div>
</div>
</div>vii) General Sibling Combinator: A selector that uses a general sibling combinator matches elements based on sibling relationships. The selected elements are beside each other in the HTML.
h2 ~ p {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}In this example, all paragraph elements (<p>) will be styled with the specified rules, but only if they are siblings of <h2> elements. There could be other elements in between the <h2> and <p>, and the styles would still apply.
<h2>Title</h2>
<p>Paragraph example.</p>
<p>Paragraph example.</p>
<p>Paragraph example.</p>
<div class="box">
<p>Paragraph example.</p>
</div>viii) Adjacent Sibling Combinator: A selector that uses the adjacent sibling combinator uses the plus symbol (+), and is almost the same as the general sibling selector. The difference is that the targeted element must be an immediate sibling, not just a general sibling.
p + p {
text-indent: 1.5em;
margin-bottom: 0;
}In this example will apply the specified styles only to paragraph elements that immediately follow other paragraph elements. This means the first paragraph element on a page would not receive these styles. Also, if another element appeared between two paragraphs, the second paragraph of the two wouldn’t have the styles applied.
<h2>Title</h2>
<p>Paragraph example.</p>
<p>Paragraph example.</p>
<p>Paragraph example.</p>
<div class="box">
<p>Paragraph example.</p>
<p>Paragraph example.</p>
</div>ix) Attribute Selector: The attribute selector targets elements based on the presence and/or value of HTML attributes, and is declared using square brackets
input[type="text"] {
background-color: #444;
width: 200px;
}<input type="text">The attribute selector can also be declared using just the attribute itself, with no value, like this:
input[type] {
background-color: #444;
width: 200px;
}x) Pseudo-class: A pseudo-class uses a colon character to identify a pseudo-state that an element might be in—for example, the state of being hovered, or the state of being activated.
a:hover {
color: red;
}xi) Pseudo-element: A CSS pseudo-element is used to style specified parts of an element. For example, it can be used to:
- Style the first letter, or line, of an element
- Insert content before, or after, the content of an element
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
p::first-line {
color: #ff0000;
font-variant: small-caps;
}
p::first-letter {
color: #ff0000;
font-size: xx-large;
}
h1::before {
content: url(smiley.gif);
}
h1::after {
content: url(smiley.gif);
}
::selection {
color: red;
background: yellow;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p>Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry.
Lorem Ipsum has been the industry\'s standard dummy text ever since the 1500s,
<h1>when an unknown printer took a galley of type and scrambled it to make a
type specimen book.<h1></p>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: CSS Selectors
Contextual selector addresses specific occurrence of an element. It is a string of individual selectors separated by white space (search pattern), where only the last element in the pattern is addressed providing it matches the specified contex.
It also check the context of the class in the html tree, assigning the style to the element through a specific route, taking into account the order of depth in the tree.
Example:
table p { property: value; } A pseudo-class is a selector that assists in the selection of something that cannot be expressed by a simple selector, for example :hover. A pseudo-element however allows us to create items that do not normally exist in the document tree, for example ::after.
Pseudo-classes
Pseudo-classes select regular elements but under certain conditions, like when their position relative to siblings or when they’re under a particular state. Here is a list of pseudo-classes in CSS3:
a) Dynamic pseudo-classes
- :link
- :visited
- :hover
- :active
- :focus
b) UI element states pseudo-classes
- :enabled
- :disabled
- :checked
c) Structural pseudo-classes
- :first-child
- :nth-child(n)
- :nth-last-child(n)
- :nth-of-type(n)
- :nth-last-of-type(n)
- :last-child
- :first-of-type
- :last-of-type
- :only-child
- :only-of-type
- :root
- :empty
d) Other pseudo-classes
:not(x) :target :lang(language)
Pseudo-elements
Pseudo-elements effectively create new elements that are not specified in the markup of the document and can be manipulated much like a regular element.
- ::before
- ::after
- ::first-letter
- ::first-line
- ::selection
A combinator is the character in a selector that connects two selectors together. There are four types of combinators.
a) Descendant Combinator (space): The descendant selector matches all elements that are descendants of a specified element.
The following example selects all <p> elements inside <div> elements:
div p {
background-color: yellow;
}b) Child Combinator (>): The child selector selects all elements that are the children of a specified element.
The following example selects all <p> elements that are children of a <div> element:
div > p {
background-color: yellow;
}c) Adjacent Sibling Combinator (+): The adjacent sibling selector selects all elements that are the adjacent siblings of a specified element.
The following example selects all <p> elements that are placed immediately after <div> elements:
div + p {
background-color: yellow;
}d) General Sibling Combinator (~): The general sibling selector selects all elements that are siblings of a specified element.
The following example selects all <p> elements that are siblings of <div> elements:
div ~ p {
background-color: yellow;
}In the CSS, a class selector is a name preceded by a full stop (“.”) and an ID selector is a name preceded by a hash character (“#”). The difference between an ID and a class is that an ID can be used to identify one element, whereas a class can be used to identify more than one.
#top {
background-color: #ccc;
padding: 20px
}
.intro {
color: red;
font-weight: bold;
}<div id="top">
<h1>Chocolate curry</h1>
<p class="intro">This is my recipe for making curry purely with chocolate</p>
<p class="intro">Mmm mm mmmmm</p>
</div>The nth-child() pseudo-class is used to match an element based on a number, which represents the element's position amongst it's siblings. More specifically, the number represents the number of siblings that exist before the element in the document tree (minus 1).
Example
.example :nth-child(5) { background: #ffdb3a; }<div class="example">
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p>
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p>
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p>
<div>This is a <em>divider</em>.</div>
<div>This is a <em>divider</em>.</div> <!-- Element to select -->
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p>
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p>
<div>This is a <em>divider</em>.</div>
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p>
<div>This is a <em>divider</em>.</div>
</div>The nth-of-type() pseudo-class, like nth-child(), is used to match an element based on a number. This number, however, represents the element's position within only those of its siblings that are of the same element type.
This number can also be expressed as a function, or using the keywords even or odd.
.example p:nth-of-type(odd) { background: #ffdb3a; }<div class="example">
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p> <!-- Element to select -->
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p>
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p> <!-- Element to select -->
<div>This is a <em>divider</em>.</div>
<div>This is a <em>divider</em>.</div>
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p>
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p> <!-- Element to select -->
<div>This is a <em>divider</em>.</div>
<p>This is a <em>paragraph</em>.</p>
<div>This is a <em>divider</em>.</div>
</div>CSS Grid Layout excels at dividing a page into major regions or defining the relationship in terms of size, position, and layer, between parts of a control built from HTML primitives. Like tables, grid layout enables us to align elements into columns and rows.
- Grid Item: The grid container contains the grid items.
- Grid Line: The grid line is either a vertical or horizontal grid line that makes up the structure of the grid.
- Grid Cell: The smallest unit on a grid is referred to as a Grid cell. It is the space between the two adjacent rows and columns.
- Rows: The grid row is the horizontal track of the grid.
- Columns: The grid column is the vertical track of the grid.
- Gutter: A gutter is a space between the rows and columns in the grid.
| Property | Description |
|---|---|
| column-gap | Specifies the gap between the columns |
| gap | A shorthand property for the row-gap and the column-gap properties |
| grid | A shorthand property for the grid-template-rows, grid-template-columns, grid-template-areas, grid-auto-rows, grid-auto-columns, and the grid-auto-flow properties |
| grid-area | Either specifies a name for the grid item, or this property is a shorthand property for the grid-row-start, grid-column-start, grid-row-end, and grid-column-end properties |
| grid-auto-columns | Specifies a default column size |
| grid-auto-flow | Specifies how auto-placed items are inserted in the grid |
| grid-auto-rows | Specifies a default row size |
| grid-column | A shorthand property for the grid-column-start and the grid-column-end properties |
| grid-column-end | Specifies where to end the grid item |
| grid-column-gap | Specifies the size of the gap between columns |
| grid-column-start | Specifies where to start the grid item |
| grid-gap | A shorthand property for the grid-row-gap and grid-column-gap properties |
| grid-row | A shorthand property for the grid-row-start and the grid-row-end properties |
| grid-row-end | Specifies where to end the grid item |
| grid-row-gap | Specifies the size of the gap between rows |
| grid-row-start | Specifies where to start the grid item |
| grid-template | A shorthand property for the grid-template-rows, grid-template-columns and grid-areas properties |
| grid-template-areas | Specifies how to display columns and rows, using named grid items |
| grid-template-columns | Specifies the size of the columns, and how many columns in a grid layout |
| grid-template-rows | Specifies the size of the rows in a grid layout |
| row-gap | Specifies the gap between the grid rows |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Grid Layout</title>
<style>
.item1 {
grid-area: header;
}
.item2 {
grid-area: menu;
}
.item3 {
grid-area: main;
}
.item4 {
grid-area: right;
}
.item5 {
grid-area: footer;
}
.grid-container {
display: grid;
grid-template-areas:
'header header header header header header'
'menu main main main right right'
'menu footer footer footer footer footer';
grid-gap: 10px;
background-color: rgba(155, 249, 249);
padding: 10px;
}
.grid-container>div {
background-color: rgba(0, 150, 149);
text-align: center;
padding: 20px 0;
font-size: 30px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Grid Layout</h1>
<p>This grid layout contains six columns and three rows:</p>
<div class="grid-container">
<div class="item1">Header</div>
<div class="item2">Menu</div>
<div class="item3">main</div>
<div class="item4">Right</div>
<div class="item5">Footer</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: Grid Layout
The Flexible Box Layout Module, makes it easier to design flexible responsive layout structure without using float or positioning. Flexbox makes it simple to align items vertically and horizontally using rows and columns. Items will "flex" to different sizes to fill the space.
Before the Flexbox Layout module, there were four layout modes:
- Block, for sections in a webpage
- Inline, for text
- Table, for two-dimensional table data
- Positioned, for explicit position of an element
An area of a document laid out using flexbox is called a flex container. To create a flex container, we set the value of the area's container's display property to flex or inline-flex. As soon as we do this the direct children of that container become flex items.
| Property | Values |
|---|---|
| display: | flexbox, inline-flex; |
| flex-direction: | row, row-reverse, column, column-reverse; |
| flex-wrap: | nowrap, wrap, wrap-reverse; |
| flex-flow: | <‘flex-direction’>, <‘flex-wrap’> |
| justify-content: | flex-start, flex-end, center, space-between, space-around; |
| align-items: | flex-start, flex-end, center, baseline, stretch; |
| align-content: | flex-start, flex-end, center, space-between, space-around, stretch; |
| Property | Values |
|---|---|
| order: | <integer>; |
| flex-grow: | <number>; /* default 0 */ |
| flex-shrink: | <number>; /* default 1 */ |
| flex-basis: | <length>, auto; /* default auto */ |
| flex: | none, [ <'flex-grow'> <'flex-shrink'>? |
| align-self: | auto, flex-start, flex-end, center, baseline, stretch; |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>The flex-direction Property</title>
<style>
.flex-container {
display: flex;
flex-direction: column;
background-color: DodgerBlue;
}
.flex-container>div {
background-color: #f1f1f1;
width: 100px;
margin: 10px;
text-align: center;
line-height: 75px;
font-size: 30px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>The flex-direction Property</h1>
<p>The "flex-direction: column;" stacks the flex items vertically (from top to bottom):</p>
<div class="flex-container">
<div>1</div>
<div>2</div>
<div>3</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: flex-direction Property
- CSS Grid Layout is a two-dimensional system, meaning it can handle both columns and rows, unlike flexbox which is largely a one-dimensional system (either in a column or a row).
- A core difference between CSS Grid and Flexbox is that — CSS Grid’s approach is layout-first while Flexbox’ approach is content-first. If you are well aware of your content before making layout, then blindly opt for Flexbox and if not, opt for CSS Grid.
- Flexbox layout is most appropriate to the components of an application (as most of them are fundamentally linear), and small-scale layouts, while the Grid layout is intended for larger-scale layouts which aren’t linear in their design.
- If you only need to define a layout as a row or a column, then you probably need flexbox. If you want to define a grid and fit content into it in two dimensions — you need the grid.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Grid vs Flexbox Layout</title>
</head>
<style>
/* Grid layout */
.row {
display: grid;
grid-template-columns: auto auto auto;
background-color: #2196f3;
padding: 5px;
}
.col-item {
background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.8);
border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.8);
padding: 10px;
font-size: 30px;
text-align: center;
}
/* Flexbox layout */
.wrapper {
border: 2px solid #f76707;
border-radius: 5px;
background-color: #fff4e6;
}
.wrapper > div {
border: 2px solid #ffa94d;
border-radius: 5px;
background-color: #ffd8a8;
padding: 1em;
color: #d9480f;
}
.wrapper {
display: flex;
width: 500px;
flex-wrap: wrap;
}
.wrapper > div {
flex: 1 1 150px;
}
</style>
<body>
<p><h1>Grid Layout Example<hr/></h1></p>
<div class="row">
<div class="col-item">Column - 1</div>
<div class="col-item">Column - 2</div>
<div class="col-item">Column - 3</div>
<div class="col-item">Column - 1</div>
<div class="col-item">Column - 2</div>
<div class="col-item">Column - 3</div>
<div class="col-item">Column - 1</div>
<div class="col-item">Column - 2</div>
<div class="col-item">Column - 3</div>
</div>
<p><h1><br/>Flexbox Layout Example<hr/></h1></p>
<div class="wrapper">
<div>One</div>
<div>Two</div>
<div>Three</div>
<div>Four</div>
<div>Five</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: CSS Grid and flexbox
The BEM (Block Element Modifier) methodology is a naming convention for CSS classes in order to keep CSS more maintainable by defining namespaces to solve scoping issues. A Block is a standalone component that is reusable across projects and acts as a "namespace" for sub components (Elements). Modifiers are used as flags when a Block or Element is in a certain state or is different in structure or style.
/* block component */
.block {
}
/* element */
.block__element {
}
/* modifier */
.block__element--modifier {
}Example
.button {
display: inline-block;
border-radius: 3px;
padding: 7px 12px;
border: 1px solid #D5D5D5;
background-image: linear-gradient(#EEE, #DDD);
font: 700 13px/18px Helvetica, arial;
}
.button--state-success {
color: #FFF;
background: #569E3D linear-gradient(#79D858, #569E3D) repeat-x;
border-color: #4A993E;
}
.button--state-danger {
color: #900;
}<button class="button">
Normal button
</button>
<button class="button button--state-success">
Success button
</button>
<button class="button button--state-danger">
Danger button
</button>Benefits
- Modularity: Block styles are never dependent on other elements on a page, so you will never experience problems from cascading.
- Reusability: Composing independent blocks in different ways, and reusing them intelligently, reduces the amount of CSS code that you will have to maintain.
- Structure: BEM methodology gives your CSS code a solid structure that remains simple and easy to understand.
CSS sprites combine multiple images into one single larger image. It is a commonly-used technique for icons.
Advantages:
-
Reduce the number of
HTTPrequests for multiple images (only one single request is required per spritesheet). But withHTTP2, loading multiple images is no longer much of an issue. -
Advance downloading of assets that won't be downloaded until needed, such as images that only appear upon
:hoverpseudo-states. Blinking wouldn't be seen. -
When you have multiple images/ icons, browser makes separate call to the server for each one of them. sprite is a technique to combine all/ some of them (usually similar one in terms of type of image. For example, you will put jpg in one sprite) in one image. To display the icon you set height, width and background position.
Alternatives:
- Data URIs - allow you to embed the image data directly into a stylesheet. This avoids additional HTTP requests for images, making it essentially the same thing as a sprite, without the fancy positioning.
- Icon Fonts
- SVGs
The pose-to-pose option is to create a few keyframes throughout the sequence, and then fill in the gaps later. Filling in these gaps is known as tweening. It is the process of generating intermediate frames between two images. It gives the impression that the first image has smoothly evolved into the second one. In CSS3, Transforms (matrix, translate, rotate, scale etc.) module can be used to achieve tweening.
Example:
p {
animation-duration: 3s;
animation-name: slidein;
}
@keyframes slidein {
from {
margin-left: 100%;
width: 300%;
}
to {
margin-left: 0%;
width: 100%;
}
}Q. Explain the difference between visibility: hidden; and display: none;? What are the pros and cons of using display:none?
- visibility: hidden simply hides the element but it will occupy space and affect the layout of the document.
- display: none removes the element from the normal layout flow (causes DOM reflow). It will not affect the layout of the document nor occupy space.
The z-index helps specify the stack order of positioned elements that may overlap one another. The z-index default value is zero, and can take on either a positive or negative number. An element with a higher z-index is always stacked above than a lower index.
z-index can take the following values:
- Auto: Sets the stack order equal to its parents.
- Number: Orders the stack order.
- Initial: Sets this property to its default value (0).
- Inherit: Inherits this property from its parent element.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>CSS z-index Property</title>
<style>
img {
position: absolute;
left: 0px;
top: 0px;
padding: 5px 2px;
margin: 5px 1px 2px;
z-index: -1;
}
p {
color: red;
font-size: 20px;
font-family: 'Segoe UI', Tahoma, Geneva, Verdana, sans-serif;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>The z-index Property</h1>
<img src="../images/horse.jpg" alt="Horse Image" />
<p>Because the image has a z-index of -1, it will be placed behind the heading.</p>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: Z-Index
-
absolute, place an element exactly where you want to place it. absolute position is actually set relative to the element's parent. if no parent available then relatively place to the page itself (it will default all the way back up to the element).
-
relative, means "relative to itself". Setting position: relative; on an element and no other positioning attributes, it will no effect on it's positioning. It allows the use of
z-indexon the element and it limits the scope of absolutely positioned child elements. Any child element will be absolutely positioned within that block. -
fixed, element is positioned relative to viewport or the browser window itself. viewport doesn't changed if you scroll and hence fixed element will stay right in the same position.
-
static default for every single page element. The only reason you would ever set an element to position: static is to forcefully-remove some positioning that got applied to an element outside of your control.
-
sticky - Sticky positioning is a hybrid of relative and fixed positioning. The element is treated as
relativepositioned until it crosses a specified threshold, at which point it is treated asfixedpositioned.
Live Demo: CSS Position Property
An element with position: relative; is positioned relative to its normal position.
Setting the top, right, bottom, and left properties of a relatively-positioned element will cause it to be adjusted away from its normal position. Other content will not be adjusted to fit into any gap left by the element.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Relative Position</title>
<style>
div.relative {
position: relative;
top: 20px;
left: 20px;
border: 3px solid #2321ad;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>position: relative;</h2>
<p>An element with position: relative; is positioned relative to its normal position:</p>
<div class="relative">
This div element has position: relative;
</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: Relative Position Property
An element with position: absolute; will cause it to adjust its position with respect to its parent. If no parent is present, then it uses the document body as parent.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Absolute Position</title>
<style>
div.relative {
position: relative;
width: 400px;
height: 200px;
border: 3px solid #2321ad;
}
div.absolute {
position: absolute;
top: 80px;
right: 0;
width: 200px;
height: 100px;
border: 3px solid #ee0b0b;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>position: absolute;</h2>
<p>An element with position: absolute; is positioned relative to the nearest positioned ancestor
(instead of positioned relative to the viewport, like fixed):</p>
<div class="relative">This div element has position: relative;
<div class="absolute">This div element has position: absolute;</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: Absolute Position Property
a) Block Elements
The block elements always start on a new line. They will also take space of an entire row or width. List of block elements are <p>, <h1>, <div>, <header>.
Example:
<p>
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet consectetur adipisicing elit. Unde autem,
consequatur deleniti nobis beatae quo dolore nemo corporis. Ad delectus
dignissimos pariatur illum eveniet dolor rem eius laborum sed iure!
</p>
<p>
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet consectetur adipisicing elit. Unde autem,
consequatur deleniti nobis beatae quo dolore nemo corporis. Ad delectus
dignissimos pariatur illum eveniet dolor rem eius laborum sed iure!
</p>b) Inline Elements
Inline elements don't start on a new line, they appear on the same line as the content and tags beside them. Some examples of inline elements are <a>, <span> , <strong>, and <img> tags.
When it comes to margins and padding, browsers treat inline elements differently. You can add space to the left and right on an inline element, but you cannot add height to the top or bottom padding or margin of an inline element.
Example:
<a href="#">Link</a>
<img src="https://picsum.photos/30" />
<span>Span</span>
<strong>Strong Player</strong>c) Inline-Block Elements
Inline-block elements are similar to inline elements, except they can have padding and margins added on all four sides.
One common use for using inline-block is for creating navigation links horizontally. Some examples of inline-block elements are <input>, <button>, <select>, <textarea> etc.
input {
width: 300px;
height: 50px;
}
button {
width: 100px;
height: 50px;
margin-top: 20px;
}<input type="text" /> <button>Submit</button>Live Demo: Display Property
CSS counters let you adjust the appearance of content based on its location in a document. To use a CSS counter, it must first be initialized to a value with the counter-reset property (0 by default). The same property can also be used to change its value to any specific number. Once initialized, a counter's value can be increased or decreased with counter-increment. The counter's name must not be "none", "inherit", or "initial"; otherwise the declaration is ignored.
body {
counter-reset: section; /* Set a counter named 'section', and its initial value is 0. */
}
h3::before {
counter-increment: section; /* Increment the value of section counter by 1 */
content: "Section " counter(section) ": "; /* Display the word 'Section ', the value of
section counter, and a colon before the content
of each h3 */
}<h3>Introduction</h3>
<h3>Body</h3>
<h3>Conclusion</h3>CSS Counter Properties
| Property | Description |
|---|---|
| content | Used with the ::before and ::after pseudo-elements, to insert generated content |
| counter-increment | Increments one or more counter values |
| counter-reset | Creates or resets one or more counters |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
body {
counter-reset: section; /* Set a counter named 'section', and its initial value is 0. */
}
h3::before {
counter-increment: section; /* Increment the value of section counter by 1 */
content: "Section " counter(section) ": "; /* Display the word 'Section ', the value of
section counter, and a colon before the content
of each h3 */
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h3>Introduction</h3>
<h3>Body</h3>
<h3>Conclusion</h3>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: CSS Counters
There are various units in CSS to express the measurement and length. A CSS unit is used to determine the property size, which we set for an element or its content. The units in CSS are required to define the measurement such as margin: 20px; in which the px (or pixel) is the CSS unit. They are used to set margin, padding, lengths, and so on.
The length unit in CSS is of two types:
- Absolute length units.
- Relative length units.
The following are all absolute length units — they are not relative to anything else, and are generally considered to always be the same size.
| Unit | Name | Equivalent to |
|---|---|---|
| cm | Centimeters | 1cm = 38px = 25/64in |
| mm | Millimeters | 1mm = 1/10th of 1cm |
| Q | Quarter-millimeters | 1Q = 1/40th of 1cm |
| in | Inches | 1in = 2.54cm = 96px |
| pc | Picas | 1pc = 1/6th of 1in |
| pt | Points | 1pt = 1/72th of 1in |
| px | Pixels | 1px = 1/96th of 1in |
Relative length units specify a length relative to another length property. Relative length units scale better between different rendering medium.
| Unit | Relative to |
|---|---|
| em | Font size of the parent, in the case of typographical properties like font-size, and font size of the element itself, in the case of other properties like width. |
| ex | x-height of the element's font. |
| ch | The advance measure (width) of the glyph "0" of the element's font. |
| rem | Font size of the root element. |
| lh | Line height of the element. |
| vw | 1% of the viewport's width. |
| vh | 1% of the viewport's height. |
| vmin | 1% of the viewport's smaller dimension. |
| vmax | 1% of the viewport's larger dimension. |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>CSS Units</title>
<style>
.wrapper {
font-size: 1em;
}
.px {
width: 200px;
}
.vw {
width: 10vw;
}
.em {
width: 10em;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<div class="wrapper">
<div class="box px">I am 200px wide</div>
<div class="box vw">I am 10vw wide</div>
<div class="box em">I am 10em wide</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: CSS Units
-
pxgives fine grained control and maintains alignment because 1 px or multiple of 1 px is guaranteed to look sharp. px is not cascade, this means if parent font-size is 20px and child 16px. child would be 16px. -
emmaintains relative size. you can have responsive fonts. em is the width of the letter 'm' in the selected typeface. However, this concept is tricky. 1em is equal to the current font-size of the element or the browser default. if u sent font-size to 16px then 1em = 16px. The common practice is to set default body font-size to 62.5% (equal to 10px). em is cascade -
%sets font-size relative to the font size of the body. Hence, you have to set font-size of the body to a reasonable size. this is easy to use and does cascade. for example, if parent font-size is 20px and child font-size is 50%. child would be 10px. -
pt(points) are traditionally used in print. 1pt = 1/72 inch and it is fixed-size unit.
1. Pseudo Element: A CSS pseudo-element is used to style specified parts of an element.
For example, it can be used to:
- Style the first letter, or line, of an element
- Insert content before, or after, the content of an element
CSS Pseudo Elements
| Sl.No | Selector | Example | description |
|---|---|---|---|
| 01. | ::after | p::after | Insert something after the content of each element |
| 02. | ::before | p::before | Insert something before the content of each element |
| 03. | ::first-letter | p::first-letter | Selects the first letter of each element |
| 04. | ::first-line | p::first-line | Selects the first line of each element |
| 05. | ::selection | p::selection | Selects the portion of an element that is selected by a user |
2. Pseudo-classes: A pseudo-class is used to define a special state of an element.
For example, it can be used to:
- Style an element when a user mouses over it
- Style visited and unvisited links differently
- Style an element when it gets focus
CSS Pseudo Classes
| Sl.No | Selector | Example | description |
|---|---|---|---|
| 01. | :active | a:active | Selects the active link |
| 02. | :checked | input:checked | Selects every checked <input> element |
| 03. | :disabled | input:disabled | Selects every disabled <input> element |
| 04. | :empty | p:empty | Selects every <p> element that has no children |
| 05. | :enabled | input:enabled | Selects every enabled <input> element |
| 06. | :first-child | p:first-child | Selects every <p> elements that is the first child of its parent |
| 07. | :first-of-type | p:first-of-type | Selects every <p> element that is the first <p> element of its parent |
| 08. | :focus | input:focus | Selects the <input> element that has focus |
| 09. | :hover | a:hover | Selects links on mouse over |
| 10. | :in-range | input:in-range | Selects <input> elements with a value within a specified range |
| 11. | :invalid | input:invalid | Selects all <input> elements with an invalid value |
| 12. | :lang(language) | p:lang(it) | Selects every <p> element with a lang attribute value starting with "it" |
| 13. | :last-child | p:last-child | Selects every <p> elements that is the last child of its parent |
| 14. | :last-of-type | p:last-of-type | Selects every <p> element that is the last <p> element of its parent |
| 15. | :link | a:link | Selects all unvisited links |
| 16. | :not(selector) | :not(p) | Selects every element that is not a <p> element |
| 17. | :nth-child(n) | p:nth-child(2) | Selects every <p> element that is the second child of its parent |
| 18. | :nth-last-child(n) | p:nth-last-child(2) | Selects every <p> element that is the second child of its parent, |
| 19. | :nth-last-of-type(n) | p:nth-last-of-type(2) | Selects every <p> element that is the second <p> element of its parent, counting from the last child |
| 20. | :nth-of-type(n) | p:nth-of-type(2) | Selects every <p> element that is the second <p> element of its parent |
| 21. | :only-of-type | p:only-of-type | Selects every <p> element that is the only <p> element of its parent |
| 22. | :only-child | p:only-child | Selects every <p> element that is the only child of its parent |
| 23. | :optional | input:optional | Selects <input> elements with no "required" attribute |
| 24. | :out-of-range | input:out-of-range | Selects <input> elements with a value outside a specified range |
| 25. | :read-only | input:read-only | Selects <input> elements with a "readonly" attribute specified |
| 26. | :read-write | input:read-write | Selects <input> elements with no "readonly" attribute |
| 27. | :required | input:required | Selects <input> elements with a "required" attribute specified |
| 28. | :root root | Selects the document's root element | |
| 29. | :target | #news:target | Selects the current active #news element (clicked on a URL containing that anchor name) |
| 30. | :valid | input:valid | Selects all <input> elements with a valid value |
| 31. | :visited | a:visited | Selects all visited links |
The CSS box model is a rectangular layout paradigm for HTML elements that consists of the following:
- Content: The content of the box, where text and images appear
- Padding: A transparent area surrounding the content (i.e., the amount of space between the border and the content)
- Border: A border surrounding the padding (if any) and content
- Margin: A transparent area surrounding the border (i.e., the amount of space between the border and any neighboring elements)
The size of the box itself is calculated like this:
| Property | Total |
|---|---|
| Width | width + padding-left + padding-right + border-left + border-right |
| Height | height + padding-top + padding-bottom + border-top + border-bottom |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>CSS Box Model</title>
<style>
div {
background-color: lightgrey;
width: 300px;
border: 10px solid rgb(3, 141, 233);
padding: 50px;
margin: 20px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>CSS Box Model</h2>
<p>The CSS box model is essentially a box that wraps around every HTML element.
It consists of: borders, padding, margins, and the actual content.</p>
<div>This text is the content of the box. We have added a 50px padding, 20px margin and a 10px blue
border.</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: CSS Box Model
The box-sizing property allows us to include the padding and border in an element's total width and height. If you set box-sizing: border-box; on an element, padding and border are included in the width and height
Syntax
box-sizing: content-box|border-box|initial|inherit;| Value | Description |
|---|---|
| content-box | Default. The width and height properties (and min/max properties) includes only the content. Border and padding are not included |
| border-box | The width and height properties (and min/max properties) includes content, padding and border |
| initial | Sets this property to its default value. Read about initial |
| inherit | Inherits this property from its parent element. Read about inherit |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>The box-sizing Property</title>
<style>
.content-box {
box-sizing: content-box;
width: 300px;
height: 100px;
padding: 30px;
border: 10px solid rgb(0, 89, 255);
}
.border-box {
box-sizing: border-box;
width: 300px;
height: 100px;
padding: 30px;
border: 10px solid rgb(255, 102, 0);
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>The box-sizing Property</h2>
<p>Defines how the width and height of an element are calculated: should they include padding
and borders, or not.</p>
<h3>1. box-sizing: content-box (default):</h3>
<p>Width and height only apply to the content of the element:</p>
<div class="content-box">This div has a width of 300px. But the full width is 300px + 20px
(left and right border) + 60px (left and right padding) = 380px!</div>
<h3>2. box-sizing: border-box:</h3>
<p>Width and height apply to all parts of the element: content, padding and borders:</p>
<div class="border-box">Here, the full width is 300px</div>
</body>
</html>- content-box – Default box-sizing property. The width and height properties (and min/max properties) includes only the content. Border and padding are not included
- border-box – The width and height properties (and min/max properties) includes content, padding and border.
cmcentimetersemelements (i.e., relative to the font-size of the element; e.g., 2 em means 2 times the current font size)ininchesmmmillimeterspcpicas (1 pc = 12 pt = 1/6th of an inch)ptpoints (1 pt = 1/72nd of an inch)pxpixels (1 px = 1/96th of an inch)
- Every
<a>element whose href attribute value begins with “https”.
a[href^="https"]- Every
<a>element whose href attribute value ends with “.pdf”.
a[href$=".pdf"]- Every
<a>element whose href attribute value contains the substring “css”.
a[href*="css"]
The box-sizing CSS property sets how the total width and height of an element is calculated.
- content-box: the default width and height values apply to the element's content only. The padding and border are added to the outside of the box.
- padding-box: Width and height values apply to the element's content and its padding. The border is added to the outside of the box. Currently, only Firefox supports the padding-box value.
- border-box: Width and height values apply to the content, padding, and border.
- inherit: inherits the box sizing of the parent element.
Example:
box-sizing: content-box;
width: 100%;
border: solid rgb(90,107,204) 10px;
padding: 5px;- RGB (Red/Green/Blue) is a color model.
p {
color: rgba(37, 84, 127, 1);
}- HEX (Hexadecimal color values)
p {
color: #25547f;
}- HSLa (Hue Saturation Lightness alpha)
p {
color: hsla(209, 55%, 32%, 1);
}Pre-processors extend CSS with variables, operators, interpolations, functions, mixins and many more other usable assets. After development, these specific files are compiled into regular CSS that any browser can understand. Pre-processor help writing reusable, easily maintainable and extensible codes in CSS.
CSS preprocessors
- SASS (SCSS)
- LESS
- Stylus
- PostCSS
Advantages:
- CSS is made more maintainable.
- Easy to write nested selectors.
- Variables for consistent theming. Can share theme files across different projects.
- Mixins to generate repeated CSS.
- Splitting your code into multiple files. CSS files can be split up too but doing so will require an HTTP request to download each CSS file.
1. Resetting: CSS resets aim to remove all built-in browser styling. For example margins, paddings, font-sizes of all elements are reset to be the same. You will have to redeclare styling for common typographic elements.
Example
html, body, div, span, applet, object, iframe, h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, p, blockquote, pre, a, abbr,
acronym, address, big, cite, code, del, dfn, em, img, ins, kbd, q, s, samp, small, strike, strong,
sub, sup, tt, var, b, u, i, center, dl, dt, dd, ol, ul, li, fieldset, form, label, legend, table,
caption, tbody, tfoot, thead, tr, th, td, article, aside, canvas, details, embed, figure, figcaption,
footer, header, hgroup, menu, nav, output, ruby, section, summary, time, mark, audio, video {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
border: 0;
font-size: 100%;
font: inherit;
vertical-align: baseline;
}2. Normalizing: Normalize CSS aims to make built-in browser styling consistent across browsers. It also corrects bugs for common browser dependencies.
Example
/*
Correct the font size and margin on `h1` elements within `section`
and `article` contexts in Chrome, Firefox, and Safari.
*/
h1 { font-size: 2em; margin: 0.67em 0;}Floats, absolutely positioned elements, block containers (such as inline-blocks, table-cells, and table-captions) that are not block boxes, and block boxes with 'overflow' other than 'visible' (except when that value has been propagated to the viewport) establish new block formatting contexts for their contents.
In a block formatting context, each box's left outer edge touches the left edge of the containing block (for right-to-left formatting, right edges touch)
A BFC is an HTML box that satisfies at least one of the following conditions:
- The value of
floatis notnone. - The value of
positionis neitherstaticnorrelative. - The value of
displayistable-cell,table-caption,inline-block,flex, orinline-flex. - The value of
overflowis notvisible.
In a BFC, each box's left outer edge touches the left edge of the containing block (for right-to-left formatting, right edges touch). Vertical margins between adjacent block-level boxes in a BFC collapse.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<title>CSS Block Formatting Context</title>
<meta charset="utf-8" />
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" />
</head>
<style type="text/css">
* {
box-sizing: border-box;
}
body {
margin: 40px;
background-color: #fff;
color: #444;
font: 1.4em Arial, sans-serif;
}
.outer {
background-color: #ccc;
margin: 0 0 40px 0;
}
p {
padding: 0;
margin: 20px 0 20px 0;
background-color: rgb(233, 78, 119);
color: #fff;
}
.overflow {
overflow: auto;
}
</style>
<body>
<h2>no BFC</h2>
<div class="outer">
<p>I am paragraph one and I have a margin top and bottom of 20px;</p>
<p>I am paragraph two and I have a margin top and bottom of 20px;</p>
</div>
<h2>With a BFC</h2>
<div class="outer overflow">
<p>I am paragraph one and I have a margin top and bottom of 20px;</p>
<p>I am paragraph two and I have a margin top and bottom of 20px;</p>
</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: CSS Block Formatting
The float CSS property places an element on the left or right side of its container, allowing text and inline elements to wrap around it.
Syntax
/* Keyword values */
float: left;
float: right;
float: none;
float: inline-start;
float: inline-end;
/* Global values */
float: inherit;
float: initial;
float: unset;Property Values
| Sl.No | Value | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 01. | none | The element does not float, (will be displayed just where it occurs in the text). |
| 02. | left | The element floats to the left of its container |
| 03. | right | The element floats the right of its container |
| 04. | initial | Sets this property to its default value. |
| 05. | inherit | Inherits this property from its parent element. |
Example:
section {
border: 1px solid blue;
width: 100%;
float: left;
}
div {
margin: 5px;
width: 50px;
height: 150px;
}
.left {
float: left;
background: pink;
}
.right {
float: right;
background: cyan;
}<section>
<div class="left">1</div>
<div class="left">2</div>
<div class="right">3</div>
<p>Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit.
Morbi tristique sapien ac erat tincidunt, sit amet dignissim
lectus vulputate. Donec id iaculis velit. Aliquam vel
malesuada erat. Praesent non magna ac massa aliquet tincidunt
vel in massa. Phasellus feugiat est vel leo finibus congue.</p>
</section>The clear property specifies what elements can float beside the cleared element and on which side.
| Sl.No | Properties | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 01. | clear: none | Allows floating elements on both sides. This is default |
| 02. | clear: left | No floating elements allowed on the left side |
| 03. | clear: right | No floating elements allowed on the right side |
| 04. | clear: both | No floating elements allowed on either the left or the right side |
| 05. | clear: inherit | The element inherits the clear value of its parent |
Example
div {
clear: left;
}The clear property is directly related to the float property. It specifies if an element should be next to the floated elements or if it should move below them. This property applies to both floated and non-floated elements.
CSS Syntax
clear: none|left|right|both|inherit|inline-start|inline-end;| Value | Description |
|---|---|
| none | The element is not moved down to clear past floats. |
| left | The element is moved down to clear past left floats. |
| right | The element is moved down to clear past right floats. |
| Both | The element is moved down to clear past both left and right floats. |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>CSS clear Property</title>
<style>
.div1 {
float: left;
width: 100px;
height: 50px;
margin: 10px;
border: 3px solid #73AD21;
}
.div2 {
border: 1px solid red;
height: 100px;
}
.div3 {
float: left;
width: 100px;
height: 50px;
margin: 10px;
border: 3px solid #73AD21;
}
.div4 {
border: 1px solid red;
height: 100px;
clear: left;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>Without clear</h2>
<div class="div1">div1</div>
<div class="div2">div2 - Notice that the div2 element is after div1, in the HTML code.
However, since div1 is floated to the left, this happens: the text in div2 is floated
around div1, and div2 surrounds the whole thing.
</div><br/>
<h2>Using clear</h2>
<div class="div3">div3</div>
<div class="div4">div4 - Using clear moves div4 down below the floated div3. The value
"left" clears elements floated to the left. You can also clear "right" and "both".</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: CSS clear Property
A clearfix is a way for an element to clear its child elements automatically without any additional markup. The clearfix property is generally used in float layouts where elements are floated to be stacked horizontally.
The clearfix property allows a container to wrap its floated children. Without a clearfix, a container will not wrap around its floated children and will collapse, just as if its floated children had been positioned absolutely.
Syntax
.clearfix {
properties
}Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>CSS Clearfix property</title>
<style>
div {
border: 3px solid #4CAF50;
padding: 5px;
}
.clearfix {
overflow: auto;
}
.img {
float: right;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<div class="clearfix">
<img class="img"
src="../images/horse.jpg"
alt="Running Horse"
width="250"
height="180">
Running Horse
</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: CSS Clearfix
Q. Does overflow: hidden create a new block formatting context?
Yes. overflow property deals with the content if content size exceeds the allocated size for the content. You can make extra content visible, hidden, scroll or auto (viewport default behavior).
- Use a separate style sheet that only loads when that specific browser is being used. This technique requires server-side rendering though.
- Use
autoprefixerto automatically add vendor prefixes to your code. - Use Reset CSS or Normalize.css.
/*Example: 01*/
.box-shadow {
background-color: red;
background-image: url(gradient-slice.png);
background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(top right, #A60000, #FFFFFF); /*Chrome and Safari*/
background-image: -moz-linear-gradient(top right, #A60000, #FFFFFF); /*Firefox*/
background-image: -ms-linear-gradient(top right, #A60000, #FFFFFF); /*Internet Explorer*/
background-image: -o-linear-gradient(top right, #A60000, #FFFFFF); /*Opera*/
background-image: linear-gradient(top right, #A60000, #FFFFFF);
}
/*Example: 02*/
.box {
-moz-border-radius: 15px; /* Firefox */
-webkit-border-radius: 15px; /* Safari and Chrome */
border-radius: 15px;
}Technique: 01
h1#technique-one {
width: 250px;
height: 25px;
background-image: url(logo.gif);
}
h1#technique-one span {
display: none;
}<h1 id="technique-one">
<span>CSS-Tricks</span>
</h1>Technique: 02
h1.technique-two {
width: 2350px;
height: 75px;
background: url("images/header-image.jpg") top right;
margin: 0 0 0 -2000px;
}<h1 class="technique-two">
CSS-Tricks
</h1>Technique: 03
h1.technique-three {
width: 350px;
height: 75px;
background: url("images/header-image.jpg");
text-indent: -9999px;
}<h1 class="technique-three">
CSS-Tricks
</h1>Technique: 04
h1.technique-four {
width: 350px;
height: 75px;
background: url("images/header-image.jpg");
text-indent: -9999px;
}<h1 class="technique-four">
<a href="#">
<img src="images/header-image.jpg" alt="CSS-Tricks" />
</a>
</h1>Technique: 05
h1.technique-five {
width: 350px;
height: 75px;
background: url("images/header-image.jpg");
}
h1.technique-five span {
display: none;
}<h1 class="technique-five">
<img src="images/blank.gif" alt="CSS-Tricks" />
<span>CSS-Tricks</span>
</h1>Technique: 06
h1.technique-six {
width: 350px;
padding: 75px 0 0 0;
height: 0;
background: url("images/header-image.jpg") no-repeat;
overflow: hidden;
}<h1 class="technique-six">
CSS-Tricks
</h1>Technique: 07
h1.technique-seven {
width: 350px;
height: 75px;
background: url("images/header-image.jpg") no-repeat;
}
h1.technique-seven span {
display: block;
width: 0;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}<h1 class="technique-seven">
<span>CSS-Tricks</span>
</h1>Technique: 08
h1.technique-eight {
width: 350px;
height: 75px;
position: relative;
}
h1.technique-eight span {
background: url("images/header-image.jpg");
position: absolute;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}<h1 class="technique-eight">
<span></span>CSS-Tricks
</h1>Technique: 09
h1.technique-nine {
width: 350px;
height: 75px;
background: url("images/header-image.jpg") no-repeat;
font-size: 1px;
color: white;
}<h1 class="technique-nine">
CSS-Tricks
</h1>Media queries are useful when you want to modify your site or app depending on a device's general type (such as print vs. screen) or specific characteristics and parameters (such as screen resolution or browser viewport width). It uses the @media rule to include a block of CSS properties only if a certain condition is true.
Media Types
| Sl.No | Value | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 01. | all | Default. Used for all media type devices |
| 02. | Used for printers | |
| 03. | screen | Used for computer screens, tablets, smart-phones etc. |
| 04. | speech | Used for screenreaders that "reads" the page out loud |
Media Features
| Sl.No | Value | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 01. | any-hover | Does any available input mechanism allow the user to hover over elements? |
| 02. | any-pointer | Is any available input mechanism a pointing device, and if so, how accurate is it? |
| 03. | aspect-ratio | The ratio between the width and the height of the viewport |
| 04. | color | The number of bits per color component for the output device |
| 05. | color-gamut | The approximate range of colors that are supported by the user agent and output device |
| 06. | color-index | The number of colors the device can display |
| 07. | grid | Whether the device is a grid or bitmap |
| 08. | height | The viewport height |
| 09. | hover | Does the primary input mechanism allow the user to hover over elements? |
| 10. | inverted-colors | Is the browser or underlying OS inverting colors? |
| 11. | light-level | Current ambient light level |
| 12. | max-aspect-ratio | The maximum ratio between the width and the height of the display area |
| 13. | max-color | The maximum number of bits per color component for the output device |
| 14. | max-color-index | The maximum number of colors the device can display |
| 15. | max-height | The maximum height of the display area, such as a browser window |
| 16. | max-monochrome | The maximum number of bits per "color" on a monochrome (greyscale) device |
| 17. | max-resolution | The maximum resolution of the device, using dpi or dpcm |
| 18. | max-width | The maximum width of the display area, such as a browser window |
| 19. | min-aspect-ratio | The minimum ratio between the width and the height of the display area |
| 20. | min-color | The minimum number of bits per color component for the output device |
| 21. | min-color-index | The minimum number of colors the device can display |
| 22. | min-height | The minimum height of the display area, such as a browser window |
| 23. | min-monochrome | The minimum number of bits per "color" on a monochrome (greyscale) device |
| 24. | min-resolution | The minimum resolution of the device, using dpi or dpcm |
| 25. | min-width | The minimum width of the display area, such as a browser window |
| 26. | monochrome | The number of bits per "color" on a monochrome (greyscale) device |
| 27. | orientation | The orientation of the viewport (landscape or portrait mode) |
| 28. | overflow-block | How does the output device handle content that overflows the viewport along the block axis |
| 29. | overflow-inline | Can content that overflows the viewport along the inline axis be scrolled |
| 30. | pointer | Is the primary input mechanism a pointing device, and if so, how accurate is it? |
| 31. | resolution | The resolution of the output device, using dpi or dpcm |
| 32. | scan | The scanning process of the output device |
| 33. | scripting | Is scripting (e.g. JavaScript) available? |
| 34. | update | How quickly can the output device modify the appearance of the content |
| 35. | width | The viewport width |
Example:
@media print {
body { font-size: 10pt; }
}
@media screen {
body { font-size: 13px; }
}
@media only screen and (max-width: 600px) {
body {
background-color: lightblue;
}
}
/* Nested within another conditional at-rule */
@supports (display: flex) {
@media screen and (min-width: 900px) {
article {
display: flex;
}
}
}
/* Extra small devices (phones, 600px and down) */
@media only screen and (max-width: 600px) { }
/* Small devices (portrait tablets and large phones, 600px and up) */
@media only screen and (min-width: 600px) { }
/* Medium devices (landscape tablets, 768px and up) */
@media only screen and (min-width: 768px) { }
/* Large devices (laptops/desktops, 992px and up) */
@media only screen and (min-width: 992px) { }
/* Extra large devices (large laptops and desktops, 1200px and up) */
@media only screen and (min-width: 1200px) { }It hide style sheets from older user agents.
Browser's Viewport
Use @font-face and define font-family for different font-weights.
Browsers match selectors from rightmost (key selector) to left. Browsers filter out elements in the DOM according to the key selector and traverse up its parent elements to determine matches. The shorter the length of the selector chain, the faster the browser can determine if that element matches the selector.
For example with this selector p span, browsers firstly find all the <span> elements and traverse up its parent all the way up to the root to find the <p> element. For a particular <span>, as soon as it finds a <p>, it knows that the <span> matches and can stop its matching.
@import: allows to load stylesheet by using a path (uri) representing the location of the file.
/* By default, include the "light" color theme for syntax highlighting */
@import "cdn.com/atom-one-light.min.css";
/* And if you’re in dark mode, have those rules superseded via a different stylesheet */
@media (prefers-color-scheme: dark) {
@import "cdn.com/atom-one-dark.min.css";
}matchMedia(): Using matchMedia lets you execute blocks of JavaScript only when a certain media query condition is met. This means you can just write out the CSS when and if the query is true:
if (window.matchMedia('screen and (min-width: 600px)')) {
document.write('<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/small.css">');
}- Make every element in the document include the padding and border in the element's inner dimensions; making it easier to reason about the layout of elements on the page.
- By default, elements have
box-sizing: content-boxapplied, and only the content size is being accounted for. box-sizing: border-boxchanges how thewidthandheightof elements are being calculated,borderandpaddingare also being included in the calculation.- The
heightof an element is now calculated by the content'sheight+ verticalpadding+ verticalborderwidth. - The
widthof an element is now calculated by the content'swidth+ horizontalpadding+ horizontalborderwidth. - Taking into account
paddings andborders as part of our box model resonates better with how designers actually imagine content in grids.
The display property specifies the display behavior (the type of rendering box) of an element.
Example:
p.ex1 {display: none;}
p.ex2 {display: inline;}
p.ex3 {display: block;}
p.ex4 {display: inline-block;}Property Values
| Sl.No | Value | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 01. | inline | Displays an element as an inline element (like <span>). Any height and width properties will have no effect |
| 02. | block | Displays an element as a block element (like <p>). It starts on a new line, and takes up the whole width |
| 03. | contents | Makes the container disappear, making the child elements children of the element the next level up in the DOM |
| 04. | flex | Displays an element as a block-level flex container |
| 05. | grid | Displays an element as a block-level grid container |
| 06. | inline-block | Displays an element as an inline-level block container. The element itself is formatted as an inline element, but you can apply height and width values |
| 07. | inline-flex | Displays an element as an inline-level flex container |
| 08. | inline-grid | Displays an element as an inline-level grid container |
| 09. | inline-table | The element is displayed as an inline-level table |
| 10. | list-item | Let the element behave like a <li> element |
| 11. | run-in | Displays an element as either block or inline, depending on context |
| 12. | table | Let the element behave like a <table> element |
| 13. | table-caption | Let the element behave like a <caption> element |
| 14. | table-column-group | Let the element behave like a <colgroup> element |
| 15. | table-header-group | Let the element behave like a <thead> element |
| 16. | table-footer-group | Let the element behave like a <tfoot> element |
| 17. | table-row-group | Let the element behave like a <tbody> element |
| 18. | table-cell | Let the element behave like a <td> element |
| 19. | table-column | Let the element behave like a <col> element |
| 20. | table-row | Let the element behave like a <tr> element |
| 21. | none | The element is completely removed |
| 22. | initial | Sets this property to its default value. Read about initial |
| 23. | inherit | Inherits this property from its parent element. Read about inherit |
1) Responsive design uses CSS media queries to change styles based on the target device such as display type, width, height, etc., and only one of these is necessary for the site to adapt to different screens.
Responsive doesn’t offer as much control as adaptive, but takes much less work to both build and maintain. Responsive layouts are also fluid and whilst adaptive can and do use percentages to give a more fluid feel when scaling, these can again cause a jump when a window is resized.
2) Adaptive design uses static layouts based on breakpoints which don't respond once they\’re initially loaded. Adaptive works to detect the screen size and load the appropriate layout for it. Generally adaptive site uses six common screen widths:
- 320 px
- 480 px
- 760 px
- 960 px
- 1200 px
- 1600 px
Adaptive is useful for retrofitting an existing site in order to make it more mobile-friendly. This allows you to take control of the design and develop for specific, multiple viewports.
In order to have crisp, good-looking graphics that make the best of retina displays we need to use high resolution images whenever possible. However using always the highest resolution images will have an impact on performance as more bytes will need to be sent over the wire.
To overcome this problem, we can use responsive images, as specified in HTML5. It requires making available different resolution files of the same image to the browser and let it decide which image is best, using the html attribute srcset and optionally sizes, for instance:
<div responsive-background-image>
<img src="/images/foo.png" alt="bar" srcset="/images/foo.png 2x" />
</div>
<!-- It enable the browser to use a medium and large image based on
the sizes of the image in the viewport
-->
<img
src="/images/foo.png"
alt="bar"
srcset="/images/foo-medium.png 1024w,
/images/foo-large.png 2048w,
/images/foo.png 800w"
/>The browsers which does not support HTML5's srcset (i.e. IE11) will ignore it and uses src instead. If we really need to support IE11 and we want to provide this feature for performance reasons, we can use a JavaScript polyfill.
HTML5 picture Element
<picture>
<source media="(min-width: 1024px)" srcset="foo-large.jpg 1024w, foo-medium.jpg 640w" sizes="50vw" />
<source srcset="foo@2x.jpg 2x, foo.jpg 1x" />
<img src="foo.jpg" alt="Bar" />
</picture>Retina Display Media Query
/* 1.25 dpr */
@media (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 1.25), (min-resolution: 120dpi) {
/* Retina-specific stuff here */
}
/* 1.3 dpr */
@media (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 1.3), (min-resolution: 124.8dpi) {
/* Retina-specific stuff here */
}
/* 1.5 dpr */
@media (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 1.5), (min-resolution: 144dpi) {
/* Retina-specific stuff here */
}Q. Is there any reason you'd want to use translate() instead of absolute positioning, or vice-versa?
translate() is a value of CSS transform. Changing transform or opacity does not trigger browser reflow or repaint but does trigger compositions; whereas changing the absolute positioning triggers reflow. transform causes the browser to create a GPU layer for the element but changing absolute positioning properties uses the CPU. Hence translate() is more efficient and will result in shorter paint times for smoother animations.
When using translate(), the element still occupies its original space (sort of like position: relative), unlike in changing the absolute positioning.
Example:
If we combine position:relative with one of the offset properties top, bottom, left or right the element will be moved from its original place in the layout whilst preserving the space in the document it once occupied. The element will be moved on to a new layer and its “layer order” or its stacking order can then be controlled with the z-index property.
.thing {
position: relative;
top: 100px;
left: 50px;
}In the above example the element will be moved 100px away from the top and 50px away from the left of its original position.
When using transform:translate(x,y) we get a very similar visual result to using relative position. The same result as above could be achieved with the following snippet:
.thing {
transform: translate(50px, 100px);
}In this case, we are translating the coordinates of the element by 50px along the x-axis and 100px along the y-axis. The end result is visually the same as the previous position example.
- False
<em>: The HTML <em> tag represents stress emphasis of its contents.
<em>Emphasized content...</em><b>: The <b> tag specifies bold text without any extra importance.
<p>This is normal text - <b>and this is bold text</b>.</p><abbr>: The HTML Abbreviation element (<abbr>) represents an abbreviation or acronym; the optional title attribute can provide an expansion or description for the abbreviation.
The <abbr title="World Health Organization">WHO</abbr> was founded in 1948.<nav>: The <nav> tag defines a set of navigation links.
<nav>
<a href="/html/">HTML</a> |
<a href="/css/">CSS</a> |
<a href="/js/">JavaScript</a> |
<a href="/jquery/">jQuery</a>
</nav><i>: The content of the <i> tag is usually displayed in italic.
<p>I looked at it and thought <i>This can't be real!</i></p><link>: The HTML <link> tag is used for defining a link to an external resource. It is placed in in the <head> section of the HTML document.
<head>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="theme.css">
</head><strong>: The <strong> element is used to identify text that is of greater importance than the surrounding text. By default, all browsers render <strong> text in a bold typeface.
<strong>Strong text</strong><article>: The <article> tag specifies independent, self-contained content.
<article>
<h1>Google Chrome</h1>
<p>Google Chrome is a free, open-source web browser developed by Google, released in 2008.</p>
</article>At-rules are CSS statements that instructs CSS how to behave. They begin with an at sign, @ followed by an identifier and includes everything up to the next semicolon, ; or the next CSS block, whichever comes first.
/* General structure */
@IDENTIFIER (RULE);
/* Example: tells browser to use UTF-8 character set */
@charset "utf-8";| Sl.No | at-rules | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 01. | @charset | Defines the character set used by the style sheet. |
| 02. | @import | Tells the CSS engine to include an external style sheet. |
| 03. | @namespace | Tells the CSS engine that all its content must be considered prefixed with an XML namespace. |
| 04. | @media | A conditional group rule that will apply its content if the device meets the criteria of the condition defined using a media query. |
| 05. | @supports | A conditional group rule that will apply its content if the browser meets the criteria of the given condition. |
| 06. | @page | Describes the aspect of layout changes that will be applied when printing the document. |
| 07. | @font-face | Describes the aspect of an external font to be downloaded. |
| 08. | @keyframes | Describes the aspect of intermediate steps in a CSS animation sequence. |
As images being inline elements are treated same as texts, so there is a gap left, which can be removed by:
<figure>
<img style="display: block" src="..." alt="">
</figure>Progressive rendering is the name given to techniques used to improve the performance of a webpage (in particular, improve perceived load time) to render content for display as quickly as possible.
Examples:
- Lazy loading of images - Images on the page are not loaded all at once. JavaScript will be used to load an image when the user scrolls into the part of the page that displays the image.
- Prioritizing visible content (or above-the-fold rendering) - Include only the minimum CSS/content/scripts necessary for the amount of page that would be rendered in the users browser first to display as quickly as possible, you can then use deferred scripts or listen for the DOMContentLoaded/load event to load in other resources and content.
- Async HTML fragments - Flushing parts of the HTML to the browser as the page is constructed on the back end.
Q. What is mobile-first? Can you explain the difference between coding a website to be responsive versus using a mobile-first strategy?
Making a website responsive means the some elements will respond by adapting its size or other functionality according to the device's screen size, typically the viewport width, through CSS media queries, for example, making the font size smaller on smaller devices.
@media (min-width: 601px) {
.my-class {
font-size: 24px;
}
}
@media (max-width: 600px) {
.my-class {
font-size: 12px;
}
}A mobile-first strategy is also responsive, however it agrees we should default and define all the styles for mobile devices, and only add specific responsive rules to other devices later. Following the previous example:
.my-class {
font-size: 12px;
}
@media (min-width: 600px) {
.my-class {
font-size: 24px;
}
}A mobile-first strategy has 2 main advantages:
- It's more performant on mobile devices, since all the rules applied for them don't have to be validated against any media queries.
- It forces to write cleaner code in respect to responsive CSS rules.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>CSS Media Query</title>
<style>
body {
background-color: lightgreen;
}
@media only screen and (max-width: 800px) {
body {
background-color: rgb(233, 50, 18);
}
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Resize the browser window</h1>
<h2>When the width of this document is 800px or less, the background-color is "green",
otherwise it is "Red".</h2>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: Media Query
The font-family property is used to change the face of a font.
The font-style property is used to make a font italic or oblique.
The font-variant property is used to create a small-caps effect.
The font-weight property is used to increase or decrease how bold or light a font appears.
The letter-spacing property is used to add or subtract space between the letters that make up a word.
The word-spacing property is used to add or subtract space between the words of a sentence.
The text-indent property is used to indent the text of a paragraph.
The text-align property is used to align the text of a document.
The text-decoration property is used to underline, overline, and strikethrough text.
The text-transform property is used to capitalize text or convert text to uppercase or lowercase letters.
The list-style-type allows you to control the shape or appearance of the marker.
The keyword initial can be used to resets it to its default value, which is defined in the CSS specification of the given property.
A process of determining which css rule will be applied to an element. It actually determines which rules will take precedence. Inline style usually wins then ID then class value (or pseudo-class or attribute selector), universal selector (*) has no specificity. ID selectors have a higher specificity than attribute selectors.
Selector Types
The following list of selector types increases by specificity:
- Type selectors (e.g., h1) and pseudo-elements (e.g., ::before).
- Class selectors (e.g., .example), attributes selectors (e.g., [type="radio"]) and pseudo-classes (e.g., :hover).
- ID selectors (e.g., #example).
/*wins*/
a#a-02 { background-image : url(n.gif); }
a[id="a-02"] { background-image : url(n.png); }Contextual selectors are more specific than a single element selector.The embedded style sheet is closer to the element to be styled. The last rule defined overrides any previous, conflicting rules.
p { color: red; background: yellow }
p { color: green } // winsA class selector beats any number of element selectors.
.introduction {} //wins
html body div div h2 p {}CSS Transitions allows to add an effect while changing from one style to another. You can set the which property you want to transition, duration, how you want to transit (linear, ease, ease-in, ease-out, cubic-bezier) and delay when transition will start.
CSS Transition Properties
| Sl.No | Property | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 01. | transition | A shorthand property for setting the four transition properties into a single property |
| 02. | transition-delay | Specifies a delay (in seconds) for the transition effect |
| 03. | transition-duration | Specifies how many seconds or milliseconds a transition effect takes to complete |
| 04. | transition-property | Specifies the name of the CSS property the transition effect is for |
| 05. | transition-timing-function | Specifies the speed curve of the transition effect |
Example: 01
div {
width: 100px;
height: 100px;
background: red;
-webkit-transition: width 2s; /* Safari prior 6.1 */
transition: width 2s;
}Live Demo: CSS Transitions
The filter CSS property applies graphical effects like blur or color shift to an element. Filters are commonly used to adjust the rendering of images, backgrounds, and borders.
Example:
img {
-webkit-filter: brightness(200%); /* Safari 6.0 - 9.0 */
filter: brightness(200%);
}Filter Functions
| Sl.No | Filter | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 01. | none | Default value. Specifies no effects |
| 02. | blur(px) | Applies a blur effect to the image. A larger value will create more blur. |
| 03. | brightness(%) | Adjusts the brightness of the image. |
| 04. | contrast(%) | Adjusts the contrast of the image. |
| 05. | drop-shadow(h-shadow v-shadow blur spread color) | Applies a drop shadow effect to the image. |
| 06. | grayscale(%) | Converts the image to grayscale. |
| 07. | hue-rotate(deg) | Applies a hue rotation on the image. The value defines the number of degrees around the color circle |
| 08. | invert(%) | Inverts the samples in the image. |
| 09. | opacity(%) | Sets the opacity level for the image. The opacity-level describes the transparency-level |
| 10. | saturate(%) | Saturates the image. |
| 11. | sepia(%) | Converts the image to sepia. |
| 12. | url() | The url() function takes the location of an XML file that specifies an SVG filter, and may include an anchor to a specific filter element. Example: filter: url(svg-url#element-id) |
| 13. | initial | Sets this property to its default value. |
| 14. | inherit | Inherits this property from its parent element. |
| Property | Description |
|---|---|
| font-style | Specifies the font style. |
| font-variant | Specifies the font variant. |
| font-weight | Specifies the font weight. |
| font-size/line-height | Specifies the font size and the line-height. |
| font-family | Specifies the font family. Default value depends on the browser |
| caption | Uses the font that are used by captioned controls (like buttons, drop-downs, etc.) |
| icon | Uses the font that are used by icon labels |
| menu | Uses the fonts that are used by dropdown menus |
| message-box | Uses the fonts that are used by dialog boxes |
| small-caption | A smaller version of the caption font |
| status-bar | Uses the fonts that are used by the status bar |
| initial | Sets this property to its default value. |
| inherit | Inherits this property from its parent element. |
| Property | Description |
|---|---|
| background-color | Specifies the background color to be used |
| background-image | Specifies ONE or MORE background images to be used |
| background-position | Specifies the position of the background images |
| background-size | Specifies the size of the background images |
| background-repeat | Specifies how to repeat the background images |
| background-origin | Specifies the positioning area of the background images |
| background-clip | Specifies the painting area of the background images |
| background-attachment | Specifies whether the background images are fixed or scrolls with the rest of the page |
| initial | Sets this property to its default value. |
| inherit | Inherits this property from its parent element |
Both em and rem units are based on the font-size CSS property. The only difference is where they inherit their values from.
emunits inherit their value from the font-size of the parent element
.parent {
font-size: 18px;
}
.child {
font-size: 1.5em;
}<div class="parent">
I'm 15px
<div class="child">
I'm 30px, as expected
<div class="child">
I'm 60px, trouble starts!
<div class="child">
I'm 120px, now we're really in trouble!
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>remunits inherit their value from the font-size of the root element (html)
.html {
font-size: 16px;
}
.parent {
font-size: 15px;
}
.child-rem {
font-size: 2rem;
}<div class="parent">
I'm 15px
<div class="child-rem">
I'm 32px, as expected
<div class="child-rem">
I'm 32px, yep!
<div class="child-rem">
I'm 32px, like clockwork!
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>Note: In most browsers, the font-size of the root element is set to 16px by default.
It overrides the cascade and gives the style rule the highest precedence.
p {
color: red !important;
}
#thing {
color: green;
}<p id="thing">Will be RED.</p><head>
<link href="style1.css" rel="stylesheet">
</head>
<body>
<p>Paragraph 1</p>
<p>Paragraph 2</p>
<link href="style2.css" rel="stylesheet">
</body>- Yes
<head>
<link href="style1.css" rel="stylesheet">
<link href="style2.css" rel="stylesheet">
</head>- No
| Keyword | Value | Description |
|---|---|---|
| position | static | The default mode, block element is positioned in the flow. Top, left etc. are ignored. |
| position | relative | The block element is positioned relative to its position in the flow. |
| position | absolute | Block element is positioned relative to its container. |
| position | fixed | Block element is positioned relative to the window and won’t scroll. |
| top | Number [px, cm, in…] | Positions the block down from the reference point at the specified distance. |
| bottom | Number [px, cm, in…] | Positions the block up from the reference point at the specified distance. |
| left | Number [px, cm, in…] | Positions the block right from the reference point at the specified distance. |
| right | Number [px, cm, in…] | Positions the block left from the reference point at the specified distance. |
1) Margin is applied to the outside of you element hence effecting how far your element is away from other elements.
2) Padding is applied to the inside of your element hence effecting how far your element's content is away from the border.
Also, using margin will not affect your element's dimensions whereas padding will make your elements dimensions (set height + padding) so for example if you have a 100x100px div with a 5 px padding, your div will actually be 105x105px
Note: Top/Bottom margins are collapsible: if you have a 20px margin at the bottom of an element and a 30px margin at the top of the next element, the margin between the two elements will be 30px rather than 50px. This does not apply to left/right margin or padding.
CSS gradients are represented by the <gradient> data type, a special type of <image> made of a progressive transition between two or more colors. There are three types of gradients:
- linear (created with the
linear-gradient()function), - radial (created with
radial-gradient()), and - conic (created with the
conic-gradient()function).
We can also create repeating gradients with the repeating-linear-gradient(), repeating-radial-gradient(), and repeating-conic-gradient() functions.
/* Example - 01: A basic linear gradient */
.simple-linear {
background: linear-gradient(blue, pink);
}
/* Example - 02: Changing the direction */
.horizontal-gradient {
background: linear-gradient(to right, blue, pink);
}
/* Example - 03: Diagonal gradients */
.diagonal-gradient {
background: linear-gradient(to bottom right, blue, pink);
}
/* Example - 04: Using angles */
.angled-gradient {
background: linear-gradient(70deg, blue, pink);
}
/* Example - 05: Creating hard lines */
.striped {
background: linear-gradient(to bottom left, cyan 50%, palegoldenrod 50%);
}
The opacity CSS property sets the opacity of an element. Opacity is the degree to which content behind an element is hidden, and is the opposite of transparency.
div { background-color: lightblue; }
.light {
opacity: 30%; /* Barely see the text over the background */
}
.medium {
opacity: 60%; /* See the text more clearly over the background */
}
.heavy {
opacity: 100%; /* See the text very clearly over the background */
}<div class="light">You can barely see this.</div>
<div class="medium">This is easier to see.</div>
<div class="heavy">This is very easy to see.</div>Inheritance is a concept in which the child class will inherit the properties of its parent class. It is used in CSS to define the hierarchy from the top level to the bottom level. Inherited properties can be overridden by the children class if the child uses the same name.
Example:
span {
color: blue;
border: 1px solid black;
}
.extra span {
color: inherit;
}The @supports query in CSS can be very useful to scan if the user's current browser has a certain feature. The @supports CSS at-rule lets you specify declarations that depend on a browser's support for one or more specific CSS features. This is called a feature query. The rule may be placed at the top level of your code or nested inside any other conditional group at-rule.
@supports (display: grid) {
div {
display: grid;
}
}
@supports not (display: grid) {
div {
float: right;
}
}Cascade is a method of defining the weight (importance) of individual styling rules thus allowing conflicting rules to be sorted out should such rules apply to the same selector.
P {color: white ! important} /* increased weight */
P (color: black} /* normal weight */Vendor prefixes are extensions to CSS standards that can be added to these features to prevent incompatibilities from arising when the standard is extended. CSS vendor prefixes for some common platforms are listed below.
- -webkit-: Android, Chrome, iOS, and Safari
- -moz-: Mozilla Firefox
- -ms-: Internet Explorer
- -o-: Opera
The Document Object Model (DOM) is a programming interface for HTML and XML(Extensible markup language) documents. It defines the logical structure of documents and the way a document is accessed and manipulated. This document enables Javascript to access and manipulate the elements and styles of a website. The model is built in a tree structure of objects and defines:
- The HTML elements as objects
- The properties of all HTML elements
- The methods to access all HTML elements
- The events for all HTML elements
The DOM Document is the owner of all other objects in your webpage. That means if you want to access any object on your webpage you always have to start with the document. It also contains many important properties and methods that enable us to access and modify our website.
| Methods | Description |
|---|---|
| getElementById() | This method is used to get a single element by its id. |
| getElementsByClassName() | This method returns an array of elements. |
| getElementsByTagName() | This method is used to get a single element by its tag name |
| querySelector() | This method returns the first element that matches a specified CSS selector. It can get elements by id, class, tag and all other valid CSS selectors. |
| querySelectorAll() | This method is completely the same as the querySelector() except that it returns all elements that fit the CSS Selector. |
The innerHTML property can be used to change the content of an HTML element. In this example we get the element with an id of header and set the inner content to "Hello World!".
// Example: Using text
document.getElementById("#header").innerHTML = "Hello World!";
// Example: Using text with tag
document.getElementsByTagName("div").innerHTML = "<h1>Hello World!</h1>"Changing a value of an attribute
We can also change the value of an attribute using the DOM.
document.getElementsByTag("img").src = "image.jpg";Changing the style
To change the style of an HTML element we need to change the style property of our elements. The CSS properties need to be written in camelcase instead of the normal css property name.
document.getElementsByTag("h1").style.borderBottom = "solid 3px #000";Adding elements
create a div element using the createElement() method which takes a tagname as a parameter and saves it into a variable. After that we just need to give it some content and then insert it into our DOM document.
var div = document.createElement("div");
var newContent = document.createTextNode("Hello World!");
div.appendChild(newContent);
document.body.insertBefore(div, currentDiv);Here we create content using the createTextNode() method which takes a String as a parameter and then we insert our new div element before a div that already exists in our document.
Deleting elements
Here we get an element and delete it using the removeChild() method.
var elem = document.querySelector('#header');
elem.parentNode.removeChild(elem);Replace elements
var div = document.querySelector('#div');
var newDiv = document.createElement('div');
newDiv.innerHTML = "Hello World2";
div.parentNode.replaceChild(newDiv, div);Here we replace an element using the replaceChild() method. The first argument is the new element and the second argument is the element which we want to replace.
We can also write HTML expressions and JavaScript directly into the HTML output stream using the write() method. The write() method can also take multiple arguments that will be appended to the document in order of their occurrence.
// HTML Content
document.write("<h1>Hello World!</h1><p>This is a paragraph!</p>");
// date object
document.write(Date());The HTML DOM also allows Javascript to react to HTML events. for example, mouse click, page load, mouse move, input field change etc.
Assign Events
You can define events directly in your js code. Here is an example of an onclick event:
document.getElementById("btn").onclick = changeText();Assign Events Listeners
Here we just assigned a clickevent that calls the runEvent method when our btn element is clicked.
document.getElementById("btn").addEventListener('click', runEvent);The nodes in the DOM Document have a hierarchical relationship to each other. This means that the nodes are structured like a tree. We use the terms parent, sibling and child to describe the relationship between nodes.
The top node is called the root and is the only node that has no parent. The root in a normal HTML document is the <html/> tag because it has no parent and is the top tag of the document.
Navigating Between Nodes
We can navigate between nodes using these properties:
- parentNode
- childNodes
- firstChild
- lastChild
- nextSibling
Example
var parent = document.getElementById("heading").parentNodeThe table-layout CSS property sets the algorithm used to lay out <table> cells, rows, and columns.
Syntax
table-layout: auto|fixed|initial|inherit;| Value | Description |
|---|---|
| auto: | It is used to set the automatic table layout on the browser. This property set the column width by unbreakable content in the cells. |
| fixed: | It is used to set a fixed table layout. The table and column widths are set by the widths of table and col or by the width of the first row of cells. Cells in other rows do not affect column widths. If no widths are present on the first row, the column widths are divided equally across the table according to content of table. |
| initial: | It is used to set its default value. |
| inherit: | It is used to inherit the property from its parent. |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>table-layout Property</title>
<style>
table {
width: 100%;
table-layout: fixed;
border-collapse: collapse;
}
th, td {
padding: 8px;
border: 1px solid #dee2e6;
}
th {
height: 40px;
text-align: left;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>table-layout Property</h2>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Row</th>
<th>First Name</th>
<th>Last Name</th>
<th>Email</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>1</td>
<td>Clark</td>
<td>Kent</td>
<td>clarkkent@mail.com</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2</td>
<td>John</td>
<td>Carter</td>
<td>johncarter@mail.com</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3</td>
<td>Peter</td>
<td>Parker</td>
<td>peterparker@mail.com</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: Table-layout Property
Note: The main benefit of table-layout: fixed; is that the table renders much faster. On large tables, users will not see any part of the table until the browser has rendered the whole table. So, if you use table-layout: fixed, users will see the top of the table while the browser loads and renders rest of the table. This gives the impression that the page loads a lot quicker!
Top and bottom margins do not affect inline elements because inline elements flow with content on the page. You can set left and right margins/padding on an inline element but not top or bottom because it would disrupt the flow of content. You can set margins on block (or inline-block but it will only look right if you set the vertical align right) because block level elements disrupt the flow of content.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Separator</title>
</head>
<style>
.separator {
border: 1px solid #333;
margin: 10px;
}
</style>
<body>
<div>
<span>Hello</span>
<span class="separator"></span>
<span>World</span>
</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: Inline Elements
The calc() function can be used to perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division calculations with numeric property values. Specifically, it can be used with <length>, <frequency>, <angle>, <time>, <number>, or <integer> data types.
Example
/* Example - 1 */
.main-content {
width: calc(100vh - 10px); /* Subtract 10px from 100vh */
}
/* Example - 2 */
.container {
padding: calc(1vw + 1em);
width: calc(var(--variable-width) + 200px);
transform: rotate( calc(1turn + 28deg) );
background: hsl(100, calc(3 * 20%), 40%);
font-size: calc(50vw / 3);
border-radius: 15px calc(15px / 3) 4px 2px;
}Custom properties (sometimes referred to as CSS variables or cascading variables) are entities defined by CSS authors that contain specific values to be reused throughout a document. They are set using custom property notation (e.g., --main-color: black;) and are accessed using the var() function (e.g., color: var(--main-color);).
Property names that are prefixed with --, like --example-name, represent custom properties that contain a value that can be used in other declarations using the var() function.
Syntax
--somekeyword: left;
--somecolor: #0000ff;
--somecomplexvalue: 3px 6px rgb(20, 32, 54);Example
:root {
--first-color: #16f;
--second-color: #ff7;
}
#firstParagraph {
background-color: var(--first-color);
color: var(--second-color);
}
#secondParagraph {
background-color: var(--second-color);
color: var(--first-color);
}
#container {
--first-color: #290;
}
#thirdParagraph {
background-color: var(--first-color);
color: var(--second-color);
}<p id="firstParagraph">This paragraph should have a blue background and yellow text.</p>
<p id="secondParagraph">This paragraph should have a yellow background and blue text.</p>
<div id="container">
<p id="thirdParagraph">This paragraph should have a green background and yellow text.</p>
</div>Live Demo: Custom Properties Variables
SASS variables are replaced with their values as the preprocessor produces its CSS output long before the browser interprets the code, while CSS custom properties are evaluated by the browser at runtime.
Example: Preprocessor Variable
$brandColor: #F06D06;
.main-header {
color: $brandColor;
}
.main-footer {
background-color: $brandColor;
}The above code would do nothing in a browser. The browser wouldn't understand the declarations and toss them out. Preprocessors need to compile into CSS to be used. This code would compile to:
.main-header {
color: #F06D06;
}
.main-footer {
background-color: #F06D06;
}This is now valid CSS. The variable was part of the preprocessor language, not CSS itself. Once the code compiles, the variables are gone.
Example: CSS Custom Property
The native CSS has started supporting CSS variables, or "CSS Custom Properties". It allows you to work with variables directly in CSS. There is no compiling.
:root {
--main-color: #F06D06;
}
.main-header {
color: var(--main-color);
}
.main-footer {
background-color: var(--main-color);
}CSS vendor prefixes, also sometimes known as or CSS browser prefixes, are a way for browser makers to add support for new CSS features before those features are fully supported in all browsers.
Example: transition property
.myClass {
-webkit-transition: all 1s linear;
-moz-transition: all 1s linear;
-ms-transition: all 1s linear;
-o-transition: all 1s linear;
transition: all 1s linear;
}The major browsers use the following prefixes:
-webkit-(Chrome, Safari, newer versions of Opera, almost all iOS browsers including Firefox for iOS; basically, any WebKit based browser)-moz-(Firefox)-o-(old pre-WebKit versions of Opera)-ms-(Internet Explorer and Microsoft Edge)
The background-attachment property in CSS is used to specify the kind of attachment of the background image with respect to its container. It can be set to scroll or remain fixed. It can be applied to all HTML elements.
Syntax
background-attachment: scroll|fixed|local|initial|inherit;| Value | Description |
|---|---|
| scroll | The background image will scroll with the page. This is default |
| fixed | The background image will not scroll with the page |
| local | The background image will scroll with the element's contents |
| initial | Sets this property to its default value. Read about initial |
| inherit | Inherits this property from its parent element. Read about inherit |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<style>
body {
background-image: url("../images/img_tree.gif");
background-repeat: no-repeat;
background-attachment: fixed;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>The background-attachment Property</h1>
<p>The background-image is fixed. Try to scroll down the page.</p>
...
<p>If you do not see any scrollbars, try to resize the browser window.</p>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: CSS background-attachment
The CSS overflow property specifies how to handle the content when it overflows its block level container.
Syntax
overflow: visible|hidden|scroll|auto|initial|inherit;| Value | Description |
|---|---|
| visible | The overflow is not clipped. It renders outside the element's box. |
| hidden | The overflow is clipped, and the rest of the content will be invisible |
| scroll | The overflow is clipped, but a scroll-bar is added to see the rest of the content |
| auto | If overflow is clipped, a scroll-bar should be added to see the rest of the content |
| initial | Sets this property to its default value. |
| inherit | Inherits this property from its parent element. |
| overflow-x | Specifies what to do with the left/right edges of the content if it overflows the element's content area |
| overflow-y | Specifies what to do with the top/bottom edges of the content if it overflows the element's content area |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>CSS Overflow Property</title>
<style>
div {
background-color: #eee;
width: 200px;
height: 100px;
border: 1px dotted black;
overflow: scroll;
padding: 10px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2>CSS Overflow Property</h2>
<p>Setting the overflow value to scroll, the overflow is clipped and a scrollbar
is added to scroll inside the box.
</p>
<div>You can use the overflow property when you want to have better control of
the layout. The overflow property specifies what happens if content overflows
an element's box.
</div>
</body>
</html>The word-wrap property in CSS is used to break long word and wrap into the next line. It defines whether to break words when the content exceeds the boundaries of its container.
Syntax
word-wrap: normal|break-word|initial|inherit;| Value | Description |
|---|---|
| normal | Break words only at allowed break points |
| break-word | Allows unbreakable words to be broken |
| initial | Sets this property to its default value. |
| inherit | Inherits this property from its parent element. |
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>The word-wrap Property</title>
<style>
div {
width: 150px;
border: 1px solid #333;
}
div.a {
word-wrap: normal;
}
div.b {
word-wrap: break-word;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h1>The word-wrap Property</h1>
<h2>word-wrap: normal (default):</h2>
<div class="a"> This div contains a very long word: thisisaveryveryveryveryveryverylongword.
The long word will break and wrap to the next line.</div>
<h2>word-wrap: break-word:</h2>
<div class="b"> This div contains a very long word: thisisaveryveryveryveryveryverylongword.
The long word will break and wrap to the next line.</div>
</body>
</html>Live Demo: The word-wrap Property
Accessibility refers to how software or hardware combinations are designed to make a system accessible to persons with disabilities, such as:
- Visual impairment
- Hearing loss
- Limited dexterity
For example, a website developed with accessibility in mind might have text-to-speech capabilities or output for special braille hardware geared toward individuals with visual impairments.
1) UI or User Interface: is how a product or website is laid out and how you interact with it: Where the buttons are, how big the fonts are, and how menus are organized are all elements of UI.
2) UX or User Experience: is how you feel about using a product or a website. So, your love for the way the new Apple Watch looks or your excitement that there’s finally a tablet-sized iPhone to watch those Corgi videos you’re obsessed with are reflections of UX. So the new look of the Facebook news feed involves a change to UI, and the way you navigate that new page is the UX.
- Graceful degradation: The practice of building an application for modern browsers while ensuring it remains functional in older browsers.
- Progressive enhancement: The practice of building an application for a base level of user experience, but adding functional enhancements when a browser supports it.
- caniuse: to check for feature support.
- Autoprefixer: for automatic vendor prefix insertion.
- Feature detection: using Modernizr.
- CSS Feature queries: using @support
Q. What are the different ways to visually hide content (and make it available only for screen readers)?
These techniques are related to accessibility (a11y).
visibility: hidden: However, the element is still in the flow of the page, and still takes up space.width: 0; height: 0: Make the element not take up any space on the screen at all, resulting in not showing it.position: absolute; left: -99999px: Position it outside of the screen.text-indent: -9999px: This only works on text within theblockelements.- Metadata: For example by using Schema.org, RDF, and JSON-LD.
- WAI-ARIA: A W3C technical specification that specifies how to increase the accessibility of web pages.
A monolithic file is fine for solo developers or very small projects. For large projects—sites with multiple layouts and content types, or multiple brands under the same design umbrella—it's smarter to use a modular approach and split your CSS across multiple files.
- reset.css: reset and normalization styles; minimal color, border, or font-related declarations
- typography.css: font faces, weights, line heights, sizes, and styles for headings and body text
- layouts.css: styles that manage page layouts and segments, including grids
- forms.css: styles for form controls and labels
- lists.css: list-specific styles
- tables.css: table-specific styles
- carousel.css: styles required for carousel components
- accordion.css: styles for accordion components
CSS frameworks such as Foundation and Bootstrap use this approach. Both become quite granular with separate files for progress bars, range inputs, close buttons, and tooltips. This allows developers to include only the components that they need for a project.
Reflow is the name of the web browser process for re-calculating the positions and geometries of elements in the document, for the purpose of re-rendering part or all of the document.
Reflow occurs when
- insert, remove or update an element in the DOM
- modify content on the page, e.g. the text in an input box
- move a DOM element
- animate a DOM element
- take measurements of an element such as offsetHeight or getComputedStyle
- change a CSS style
- change the className of an element
- add or remove a stylesheet
- resize the window
- scroll
Minimizing browser reflow
- Reduce unnecessary DOM depth. Changes at one level in the DOM tree can cause changes at every level of the tree - all the way up to the root, and all the way down into the children of the modified node. This leads to more time being spent performing reflow.
- Minimize CSS rules, and remove unused CSS rules.
- If you make complex rendering changes such as animations, do so out of the flow. Use position-absolute or position-fixed to accomplish this.
- Avoid unnecessary complex CSS selectors - descendant selectors in particular - which require more CPU power to do selector matching.
The CSS language is designed to be used alongside a "markup" language like HTML. CSS defines how HTML elements are formatted – controlling their layout, colors, fonts, and so on. When a browser displays a document, it must combine the document's content with its style information. It processes the document in a number of stages, which we've listed below.
- The browser loads the HTML (e.g. receives it from the network).
- It converts the HTML into a DOM (Document Object Model).
- The browser then fetches most of the resources that are linked to by the HTML document, such as embedded images and videos and linked CSS.
- The browser parses the fetched CSS, and sorts the different rules by their selector types into different "buckets", e.g. element, class, ID, and so on. Based on the selectors it finds, it works out which rules should be applied to which nodes in the DOM, and attaches style to them as required (this intermediate step is called a render tree).
- The render tree is laid out in the structure it should appear in after the rules have been applied to it.
- The visual display of the page is shown on the screen (this stage is called painting).
The following diagram also offers a simple view of the process.
A DOM has a tree-like structure. Each element, attribute, and piece of text in the markup language becomes a DOM node in the tree structure. The nodes are defined by their relationship to other DOM nodes. Some elements are parents of child nodes, and child nodes have siblings. The browser undergo a process that includes conversion, tokenization, lexing, and parsing which ultimately constructs the DOM and CSSOM.
- Conversion: Reading raw bytes of HTML and CSS off the disk or network.
- Tokenization: Breaking input into chunks (ex: start tags, end tags, attribute names, attribute values), striping irrelevant characters such as whitespace and line breaks.
- Lexing: Like the tokenizer, but it also identifies the type of each token (this token is a number, that token is a string literal, this other token is an equality operator).
- Parsing: Takes the stream of tokens from the lexer, interprets the tokens using a specific grammar, and turns it into an abstract syntax tree.
Example: DOM Representation
<p>
Let's use:
<span>Cascading</span>
<span>Style</span>
<span>Sheets</span>
</p>In the DOM, the node corresponding to our <p> element is a parent. Its children are a text node and the three nodes corresponding to our <span> elements. The SPAN nodes are also parents, with text nodes as their children:
P
├─ "Let's use:"
├─ SPAN
| └─ "Cascading"
├─ SPAN
| └─ "Style"
└─ SPAN
└─ "Sheets"Applying CSS to the DOM
span {
border: 1px solid black;
background-color: lime;
}Once both tree structures are created, the rendering engine then attaches the data structures into what's called a render tree as part of the layout process. The render tree is a visual representation of the document which enable painting the contents of the page in their correct order.
Render tree construction follows the following order:
- Starting at the root of the DOM tree, traverse each visible node.
- Omit non visible nodes.
- For each visible node find the appropriate matching CSSOM rules and apply them.
- Emit visible nodes with content and their computed styles.
- Finally, output a render tree that contains both the content and style information of all visible content on the screen.
Click if you like the project. Pull Request are highly appreciated.
The Extensible Hypertext Markup Language, or XHTML, has two important notes for front end developers.
- It needs to be well formed, meaning all elements need to be closed and nested correctly or you will return errors.
- Since it is more strict than HTML is requires less pre-processing by the browser, which may improve your sites performance.
- Semantics: allowing you to describe more precisely what your content is.
- Connectivity: allowing you to communicate with the server in new and innovative ways.
- Offline and storage: allowing webpages to store data on the client-side locally and operate offline more efficiently.
- Multimedia: making video and audio first-class citizens in the Open Web.
- 2D/3D graphics and effects: allowing a much more diverse range of presentation options.
- Performance and integration: providing greater speed optimization and better usage of computer hardware.
- Device access: allowing for the usage of various input and output devices.
- Styling: letting authors write more sophisticated themes.
HTML5 semantic tags define the function and the category of your text, simplifying the work for browsers and search engines, as well as developers.
HTML5 offers new semantic elements to define different parts of a web page:
<article><aside><details><figcaption><figure><footer><header><main><mark><nav><section><summary><time>
Syntax:
<header></header>
<section>
<article>
<figure>
<img>
<figcaption></figcaption>
</figure>
</article>
</section>
<footer></footer>- Search Engine Optimization, accessibility, repurposing, light code.
- Many visually impaired person rely on browser speech and semantic tag helps to interpret page content clearly.
- Search engine needs to understand page content to rank and semantic tag helps.
- Semantic code aids accessibility. Specially, many people whose eyes are not good rely on speech browsers to read pages to them. These programs cannot interpret pages very well unless they are clearly explained.
- Help Search engines to better understand pages. Search engine need to understand what your content is about when rank you properly on search engines. Semantic code tends to improve your placement on search engines, as it is easier for the "search engine spiders" to understand.
- It's easier to read and edit, which saves time and money during maintenance.
A DOCTYPE is always associated to a DTD ( Document Type Definition ). A DTD defines how documents of a certain type should be structured (i.e. a button can contain a span but not a div), whereas a DOCTYPE declares what DTD a document supposedly respects (i.e. this document respects the HTML DTD). For webpages, the DOCTYPE declaration is required. It is used to tell user agents what version of the HTML specifications your document respects.
Once a user agent has recognized a correct DOCTYPE, it will trigger the no-quirks mode matching this DOCTYPE forreading the document. If a user agent doesn't recognize a correct DOCTYPE, it will trigger the quirks mode.
The web page is rendered in quirks mode. The web browsers engines use quirks mode to support older browsers which does not follow the W3C specifications. In quirks mode CSS class and id names are case insensitive. In standards mode they are case sensitive.
There are five new form elements in the HTML5 forms specification: <datalist>, <output>, <progress>, and <meter>.
Allows to attach a list of suggestions to a text input element. As soon as the user begins to type in the text field, the list of suggestions appears and the user can choose from the suggestions with the mouse.
<p>Enter your favorite browser name:</p>
<input type="text" list="browsers" name="favorite_browser">
<datalist id="browsers">
<option value="Firefox">
<option value="Chrome">
<option value="Internet Explorer">
<option value="Opera">
<option value="Safari">
</datalist>Indicates a numeric value that falls within a range. The tag supports a number of attributes:
value: If you don't specify a value, the first numeric value inside the <meter></meter> pair becomes the value.
- max: The maximum possible value of the item.
- min: The minimum possible value of the item.
- high: If the value can be defined as a range, this is the high end of the range.
- low: If the value can defined as a range, this is the low end of that range.
- optimum: The optimal value of the element.
<p>Disk Usage: <meter value="0.2">20%</meter></p>
<p>Total Score: <meter value="6" min="0" max="10">6 out of 10</meter></p>
<p>Pollution Level: <meter low="60" high="80" max="100" value="85">Very High</meter></p>It indicates a section of the page that can be modified by a script (usually JavaScript).
<form oninput="result.value=parseInt(a.value)+parseInt(b.value)">
<input type="range" id="a" value="50"> +
<input type="number" id="b" value="100"> =
<output name="result" for="a b"></output>
</form>Indicates how much of a task has been completed (often marked as a percentage). It is expected to be modified through JavaScript code.
<p>Progress: <progress id="bar" value="0" max="100"><span>0</span>%</progress></p>
<script type="text/javascript">
var i = 0;
var progressBar = document.getElementById("bar");
function countNumbers() {
if(i < 100) {
i = i + 1;
progressBar.value = i;
// For browsers that don't support progress tag
progressBar.getElementsByTagName("span")[0].textContent = i;
}
// Wait for sometime before running this script again
setTimeout("countNumbers()", 100);
}
countNumbers();
</script>| Sl.No | Element | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 01. | color | Gives the end user a native color picker to choose a color. |
| 02. | date | Offers a datepicker. |
| 03. | datetime | An element to choose both date and time. |
| 04. | datetime-local | An element to choose both date and time, with local settings support. |
| 05. | A field for entering e-mail address(es). | |
| 06. | month | Choose a full month. |
| 07. | number | Picking a number. |
| 08. | range | Offers a slider to set to a certain value/position. |
| 09. | search | A field for search queries. |
| 10. | tel | Choosing a telephone number. |
| 11. | time | Input a certain time. |
| 12. | url | Entering a URL. |
| 13. | week | Picking a specific week. |
Example:
<input type="color" value="#b97a57">
<input type="date" value="2020-06-08">
<input type="datetime" value="2020-06-09T20:35:34.32">
<input type="datetime-local" value="2020-06-09T22:41">
<input type="email" value="robert@robertnyman.com">
<input type="month" value="2020-06">
<input type="number" value="4">
<input type="range" value="15">
<!-- Note: If not set, default attribute values are min="0", max="100", step="1". -->
<input type="search" value="[Any search text]">
<input type="tel" value="[Any numeric value]">
<!-- Note: Most web browsers seem to let through any value at this time. -->
<input type="time" value="22:38">
<input type="url" value="https://www.google.com/">
<!-- Note: requires a protocol like http://, ftp:// etc in the beginning. -->
<input type="week" value="2020-W24">The primary difference between div and span tag is their default behavior. By default, a <div> is a block-level-element and a <span> is an inline element.
<div>is a block level element which means it will render it on it's own line with a width of a 100% of the parent element.<span>is an inline element which means it will render on the same line as the previous element, if it is also an inline element, and it's width will be determined by it's content.
<div>Demo Text, with <span>some other</span> text.</div><p>, <li>, <td>, <tr>, <th>, <html>, <body>, etc. don't have to provide end tag. Whenever browser hits a new tag it automatically ends the previous tag.
In HTML5 it is not strictly necessary to close certain HTML tags. The tags that aren't required to have specific closing tags are called “self closing” tags.
An example of a self closing tag is something like a line break (<br />) or the meta tag (<meta>). This means that the following are both acceptable:
<meta charset="UTF-8">
...
<meta charset="UTF-8" />- block elements
<h1>, <p>, <ul>, <ol>, <li>, - inline elements
<span>, <a>, <strong>, <i>, <img>
-
Semantic elements: clearly describes its meaning to both the browser and the developer. For example:
<form>,<table>,<article>,<aside>,<details>,<figcaption>,<figure>,<footer>,<header>,<main>,<mark>,<nav>,<section>,<summary>,<time>clearly defines its content. -
Non-semantic elements:
<div>and<span>tells nothing about its content.
The HTML <main> element represents the dominant content of the <body> of a document. The main content area consists of content that is directly related to or expands upon the central topic of a document, or the central functionality of an application.
<main role="main">
<p>Geckos are a group of usually small, usually nocturnal lizards.
They are found on every continent except Australia.</p>
<p>Many species of gecko have adhesive toe pads which enable them to climb walls and even windows.</p>
</main>Note: A document mustn't have more than one <main> element that doesn't have the hidden attribute specified.
Q. Define semantic markup. What are the semantic meanings for <section>, <article>, <aside>, <nav>, <header>, <footer> and when/how should each be used in structuring html markup?
-
<header>is used to contain introductory and navigational information about a section of the page. This can include the section heading, the author's name, time and date of publication, table of contents, or other navigational information. -
<article>is meant to house a self-contained composition that can logically be independently recreated outside of the page without losing it's meaining. Individual blog posts or news stories are good examples. -
<section>is a flexible container for holding content that shares a common informational theme or purpose. -
<footer>is used to hold information that should appear at the end of a section of content and contain additional information about the section. Author's name, copyright information, and related links are typical examples of such content.
-
<section>, group of content inside is related to a single theme, and should appear as an entry in an outline of the page. It's a chunk of related content, like a subsection of a long article, a major part of the page (eg the news section on the homepage), or a page in a webapp's tabbed interface. A section normally has a heading (title) and maybe a footer too. -
<article>, represents a complete, or self-contained, composition in a document, page, application, or site and that is, in principle, independently distributable or reusable, e.g. in syndication. This could be a forum post, a magazine or newspaper article, a blog entry, a user-submitted comment, an interactive widget or gadget, or any other independent item of content. -
<div>, on the other hand, does not convey any meaning, aside from any found in its class, lang and title attributes.
Yes, header elements can be used multiple times in documents. A <header> tag must be present for all articles, sections, and pages, although a <footer> tag is not necessary.
From W3C standards
A header element is intended to usually contain the section's heading (an h1–h6 element or an hgroup
element), but this is not required. The header element can also be used to wrap a section's table of
contents, a search form, or any relevant logos.The footer element represents a footer for its nearest ancestor sectioning content or sectioning root
element. A footer typically contains information about its section such as who wrote it, links to related
documents, copyright data, and the like.ToDo
Character encoding is a method of converting bytes into characters. To validate or display an HTML document properly, a program must choose a proper character encoding. This is specified in the tag:
<meta charset="utf-8"/>- UTF-8: A Unicode Translation Format that comes in 8-bit units that is, it comes in bytes. A character in UTF8 can be from 1 to 4 bytes long, making UTF8 variable width.
The META elements can be used to include name/value pairs describing properties of the HTML document, such as author, expiry date, a list of keywords, document author etc.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<!--Recommended Meta Tags-->
<meta charset="utf-8">
<meta name="language" content="english">
<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html">
<meta name="author" content="Author Name">
<meta name="designer" content="Designer Name">
<meta name="publisher" content="Publisher Name">