kivi: A Go repository from maxpoletaev

Distributed key-value database for educational purposes

Kivi falls into the category of Dynamo-style databases (like Cassandra and Riak), which are distributed databases that were initially designed for high availability and partition tolerance. The primary difference between Kivi and other databases in this category is its simplicity, offering an easily understood and modifiable implementation of core distributed system concepts.

The main goal of this project is to provide myself and others with hands-on experience in databases, distributed systems, and their underlying mechanics. Although the project is still in its early stages, it is already possible to run a fully functional cluster of nodes and perform basic operations such as gets, puts, and deletes.

Key Properties

Handcrafted: The core functions should not rely on any external libraries.
Leaderless: The system should not have a single point of failure.
Highly Available: The system should be available even if some nodes fail.
Replicated: The system should replicate data across multiple nodes.
Eventually Consistent: The system should eventually converge to a consistent state.
Partition Tolerant: The system should be able to tolerate network partitions.
Configurable: The system should allow to configure the consistency level for reads and writes.
Conflict Resilient: The system should be able to resolve conflicts in case of concurrent updates.
Simple API: The system should provide a simple API for storing and retrieving key-value pairs.
Simple Deployment: The system should be easy to configure and deploy.
Simple Implementation: The system should be easy to understand and modify.
High Performance: The system should be able to handle a large number of requests per second.

The Building Blocks

Membership and Failure Detection

The membership layer is responsible for maintaining the list of nodes in the cluster and detecting failures. It uses a SWIM-like gossip protocol to exchange information about cluster members and their status.

On each algorithm iteration, a node randomly selects other node from the cluster and sends it an empty ping message. The receiving node responds with a ping-ack message containing a hash of its membership list. The sending node then compares the hash with its own membership list and initiates a state-exchange operation in case of a mismatch.

During the state-exchange, the sending node sends its membership list to the receiving node, which then merges it with its own list and sends back a new list of members. The sending node then merges the received list with its own and updates its membership list accordingly.

In case the ping request fails, the sending node asks two other random nodes from the cluster to ping the failed node on its behalf. If the node is still unresponsive, the sending node marks the receiving node as unhealthy. This state will be propagated to other nodes in the cluster during the next algorithm iteration.

Persistent Storage

The storage layer is responsible for storing the key-value pairs on disk. The storage is based on log-structured merge trees (LSM-Tree), which are a type of external memory data structure allowing for efficient writes and providing decent read performance. LSM-tree is composed of two main components: the in-memory sorted map (memtable) and the on-disk sorted string tables (SSTables).

The memtable holds the most recent updates to the database. Each write to a memtable is added to a write-ahead log which is used to restore the contents of the memtable in case of a crash or restart. Once the size of the memtable exceeds a certain threshold, it is flushed to disk as an immutable SSTable accompanied by a sparse index and a bloom filter files. SStables are stored in level-based structure, where each level contains a set of SSTables.

$ tree data
├── STATE
├── mem-1679761553589453.wal
├── sst-1679520869189745.L0.bloom
├── sst-1679520869189745.L0.data
├── sst-1679520869189745.L0.index
├── sst-1679594643164184.L0.bloom
├── sst-1679594643164184.L0.data
├── sst-1679594643164184.L0.index
├── sst-1679595355518826.L1.bloom
├── sst-1679595355518826.L1.data
└── sst-1679595355518826.L1.index

A background compaction process periodically merges the SSTables in each level into larger SSTables and moves them to the next level, removing the values that were overwritten by newer updates. Each change to the tree state is recorded in the STATE file, which is used to restore the last known state of the tree and to identify the files that were merged and thus can be safely deleted during the garbage collection process.

The reads are performed by first checking the memtable, and then the SSTables from newest to oldest. The SSTables are searched using the bloom filter to quickly skip the files that do not contain the requested key. The sparse index is then used to find the approximate location of the key in the data file, and from there the data file is scanned linearly to find the exact location of the key.

Replication and Consistency

The replication layer is responsible for coordinating reads and writes to multiple nodes. It uses a quorum-based approach to ensure that the desired consistency level is achieved. The replication layer is also responsible for detecting and resolving conflicts in case of concurrent updates of the same key from different clients on different nodes.

Once a read or write request is received, the replication layer mirrors it to all available nodes in the cluster. The request is considered successful if the desired number of nodes acknowledge it. The number of nodes depends on the configured consistency level. For example, if the write consistency level is set to Quorum, the majority of nodes (2/3 or 3/5) must confirm that the write operation was successful.

Since the writes can be performed on any node in the cluster, it is possible that the same key may be updated on multiple nodes. A conflict occurs when two or more nodes have different values for the same key. The conflict resolution strategy relies on version vectors to determine the causal order of updates. In case there is a clear dependency that one update happened before the other, the update with the lower version is discarded. In case there is no clear relationship between the updates, the server returns a list of all conflicting values and leaves it up to the client. The client can then choose to perform conflict resolution using a different content-aware strategy, such as last-write-wins or use conflict-free data structures (CRDT).

Conflict-free Data Types

Kivi supports a few basic conflict-free data types for which the conflict resolution is not required, allowing to use kivi as a more traditional key-value store. The following data types are currently supported:

LWW-Register: A last-write-wins register with timestamp-based conflict resolution
Set: A set of strings that supports adding and removing elements without conflicts

Note that these data types have some overhead associated with storing additional metadata required for conflict resolution. For example, the LWW-Register stores the timestamp of the last update, and the Set needs to keep track of tombstones for deleted elements.

Running a Local Cluster

The docker-compose.yaml contains a minimal configuration of a cluster of five replicas. To run it, use:

make image
docker compose up

With the default consistency level, you need the majority of nodes (3 out of 5) to be available to perform reads and writes. A failure can be simulated by killing one or two of the containers with docker kill.

References

The following resources, papers and books were the main source of inspiration for this project:

maxpoletaev/kivi