PyOD is a comprehensive Python toolkit to identify outlying objects in multivariate data with both unsupervised and supervised approaches. This exciting yet challenging field is commonly referred as Outlier Detection or Anomaly Detection . The toolkit has been successfully used in various academic researches [4, 8] and commercial products. Unlike existing libraries, PyOD provides:
- Unified and consistent APIs across various anomaly detection algorithms for easy use.
- Compatibility with both Python 2 and 3. All implemented algorithms are also scikit-learn compatible.
- Advanced functions, e.g., Outlier Ensemble Frameworks to combine multiple detectors.
- Detailed API Reference, Interactive Examples in Jupyter Notebooks for better reliability.
Table of Contents:
- Quick Introduction
- Installation
- API Cheatsheet & Reference
- Quick Start for Outlier Detection
- Quick Start for Combining Multiple Outlier Detectors
- How to Contribute and Collaborate?
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Anomaly detection resources, e.g., courses, books, papers and videos.
PyOD toolkit consists of three major groups of functionalities: (i) outlier detection algorithms; (ii) outlier ensemble frameworks and (iii) outlier detection utility functions.
Individual Detection Algorithms:
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Linear Models for Outlier Detection:
- PCA: Principal Component Analysis use the sum of weighted projected distances to the eigenvector hyperplane as the outlier outlier scores) [10]
- MCD: Minimum Covariance Determinant (use the mahalanobis distances as the outlier scores) [11, 12]
- One-Class Support Vector Machines [3]
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Proximity-Based Outlier Detection Models:
- LOF: Local Outlier Factor [1]
- kNN: k Nearest Neighbors (use the distance to the kth nearest neighbor as the outlier score)
- Average kNN Outlier Detection (use the average distance to k nearest neighbors as the outlier score)
- Median kNN Outlier Detection (use the median distance to k nearest neighbors as the outlier score)
- HBOS: Histogram-based Outlier Score [5]
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Probabilistic Models for Outlier Detection:
- ABOD: Angle-Based Outlier Detection [7]
- FastABOD: Fast Angle-Based Outlier Detection using approximation [7]
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Outlier Ensembles and Combination Frameworks
- Isolation Forest [2]
- Feature Bagging [9]
Outlier Detector/Scores Combination Frameworks:
- Feature Bagging: build various detectors on random selected features [9]
- Average & Weighted Average: simply combine scores by averaging [6]
- Maximization: simply combine scores by taking the maximum across all base detectors [6]
- Average of Maximum (AOM) [6]
- Maximum of Average (MOA) [6]
- Threshold Sum (Thresh) [6]
Utility Functions for Outlier Detection:
- score_to_lable(): convert raw outlier scores to binary labels
- precision_n_scores(): one of the popular evaluation metrics for outlier mining (precision @ rank n)
- generate_data(): generate pseudo data for outlier detection experiment
- wpearsonr(): weighted pearson is useful in pseudo ground truth generation
Comparison of all implemented models are made available below: (Figure, Code, Jupyter Notebooks):
For Jupyter Notebooks, please navigate to "/notebooks/Compare All Models.ipynb"
It is recommended to use pip for installation. Please make sure the latest version is installed since PyOD is currently updated on a daily basis:
pip install pyod
pip install --upgrade pyod # make sure the latest version is installed!
Alternatively,install from github directly (NOT Recommended)
git clone https://github.com/yzhao062/pyod.git
python setup.py install
Required Dependency:
- Python 2.7, 3.4, 3.5 or 3.6
- numpy>=1.13
- scipy>=0.19.1
- scikit_learn>=0.19.1
- matplotlib
- nose
Known Issue: PyOD depends on matplotlib, which would throw errors in conda virtual environment on mac OS. See reasons and solutions here.
Full API Reference: (http://pyod.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html). API cheatsheet for all detectors:
- fit(X): Fit detector.
- fit_predict(X): Fit detector and predict if a particular sample is an outlier or not.
- fit_predict_score(X, y): Fit, predict and then evaluate with predefined metrics (ROC and precision @ rank n).
- decision_function(X): Predict anomaly score of X of the base classifiers.
- predict(X): Predict if a particular sample is an outlier or not. The model must be fitted first.
- predict_proba(X): Predict the probability of a sample being outlier. The model must be fitted first.
Key Attributes of a fitted model:
- decision_scores_: The outlier scores of the training data. The higher, the more abnormal. Outliers tend to have higher scores.
- labels_: The binary labels of the training data. 0 stands for inliers and 1 for outliers/anomalies.
Full package structure can be found below:
- http://pyod.readthedocs.io/en/latest/genindex.html
- http://pyod.readthedocs.io/en/latest/py-modindex.html
See examples directory for more demos. "examples/knn_example.py" demonstrates the basic APIs of PyOD using kNN detector. It is noted the APIs for other detectors are similar.
- Initialize a kNN detector, fit the model, and make the prediction.
from pyod.models.knn import KNN # kNN detector # train kNN detector clf_name = 'KNN' clf = KNN() clf.fit(X_train) # get the prediction label and outlier scores of the training data y_train_pred = clf.labels_ # binary labels (0: inliers, 1: outliers) y_train_scores = clf.decision_scores_ # raw outlier scores # get the prediction on the test data y_test_pred = clf.predict(X_test) # outlier labels (0 or 1) y_test_scores = clf.decision_function(X_test) # outlier scores
- Evaluate the prediction by ROC and Precision@rank n (p@n):
# evaluate and print the results print("\nOn Training Data:") evaluate_print(clf_name, y_train, y_train_scores) print("\nOn Test Data:") evaluate_print(clf_name, y_test, y_test_scores)
- See a sample output & visualization
On Training Data: KNN ROC:1.0, precision @ rank n:1.0 On Test Data: KNN ROC:0.9989, precision @ rank n:0.9
visualize(clf_name, X_train, y_train, X_test, y_test, y_train_pred, y_test_pred, show_figure=True, save_figure=False)
Visualization (knn_figure):
"examples/comb_example.py" illustrates the APIs for combining multiple base detectors (Code, Jupyter Notebooks).
For Jupyter Notebooks, please navigate to "/notebooks/Model Combination.ipynb"
Given we have n individual outlier detectors, each of them generates an individual score for all samples. The task is to combine the outputs from these detectors effectively Key Step: conducting Z-score normalization on raw scores before the combination. Four combination mechanisms are shown in this demo:
- Average: take the average of all base detectors.
- maximization : take the maximum score across all detectors as the score.
- Average of Maximum (AOM): first randomly split n detectors in to p groups. For each group, use the maximum within the group as the group output. Use the average of all group outputs as the final output.
- Maximum of Average (MOA): similarly to AOM, the same grouping is introduced. However, we use the average of a group as the group output, and use maximum of all group outputs as the final output. To better understand the merging techniques, refer to [6].
The walkthrough of the code example is provided:
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Import models and generate sample data
from pyod.models.knn import KNN from pyod.models.combination import aom, moa, average, maximization from pyod.utils.data import generate_data X, y = generate_data(train_only=True) # load data
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First initialize 20 kNN outlier detectors with different k (10 to 200), and get the outlier scores:
# initialize 20 base detectors for combination k_list = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200] train_scores = np.zeros([X_train.shape[0], n_clf]) test_scores = np.zeros([X_test.shape[0], n_clf]) for i in range(n_clf): k = k_list[i] clf = KNN(n_neighbors=k, method='largest') clf.fit(X_train_norm) train_scores[:, i] = clf.decision_scores_ test_scores[:, i] = clf.decision_function(X_test_norm)
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Then the output codes are standardized into zero mean and unit variance before combination.
from pyod.utils.utility import standardizer train_scores_norm, test_scores_norm = standardizer(train_scores, test_scores)
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Then four different combination algorithms are applied as described above:
comb_by_average = average(test_scores_norm) comb_by_maximization = maximization(test_scores_norm) comb_by_aom = aom(test_scores_norm, 5) # 5 groups comb_by_moa = moa(test_scores_norm, 5)) # 5 groups
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Finally, all four combination methods are evaluated with ROC and Precision @ Rank n:
Combining 20 kNN detectors Combination by Average ROC:0.9194, precision @ rank n:0.4531 Combination by Maximization ROC:0.9198, precision @ rank n:0.4688 Combination by AOM ROC:0.9257, precision @ rank n:0.4844 Combination by MOA ROC:0.9263, precision @ rank n:0.4688
You are welcome to contribute to this exciting project, and we are pursuing to publish the toolkit in prestigious academic venues, e.g., JMLR (Track for open-source software).
If you are interested in contributing:
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Please first check Issue lists for "help wanted" tag and comment the one you are interested
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Fork the repository and add your improvement/modification/fix
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Create a pull request
To make sure the code has the same style and standard, please refer to models, such as abod.py, hbos.py or feature bagging for example.
You are also welcome to propose your ideas by open an issue or drop me an email at yuezhao@cs.toronto.edu
[1] Breunig, M.M., Kriegel, H.P., Ng, R.T. and Sander, J., 2000, May. LOF: identifying density-based local outliers. In ACM SIGMOD Record, pp. 93-104. ACM.
[2] Liu, F.T., Ting, K.M. and Zhou, Z.H., 2008, December. Isolation forest. In ICDM '08, pp. 413-422. IEEE.
[3] Ma, J. and Perkins, S., 2003, July. Time-series novelty detection using one-class support vector machines. In IJCNN' 03, pp. 1741-1745. IEEE.
[4] Y. Zhao and M.K. Hryniewicki, "DCSO: Dynamic Combination of Detector Scores for Outlier Ensembles," ACM SIGKDD Workshop on Outlier Detection De-constructed, 2018. Submitted, under review.
[5] Goldstein, M. and Dengel, A., 2012. Histogram-based outlier score (hbos): A fast unsupervised anomaly detection algorithm. In KI-2012: Poster and Demo Track, pp.59-63.
[6] Aggarwal, C.C. and Sathe, S., 2015. Theoretical foundations and algorithms for outlier ensembles.ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter, 17(1), pp.24-47.
[7] Kriegel, H.P. and Zimek, A., 2008, August. Angle-based outlier detection in high-dimensional data. In KDD '08, pp. 444-452. ACM.
[8] Y. Zhao and M.K. Hryniewicki, "XGBOD: Improving Supervised Outlier Detection with Unsupervised Representation Learning," IEEE International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, 2018.
[9] Lazarevic, A. and Kumar, V., 2005, August. Feature bagging for outlier detection. In KDD '05. 2005.
[10] Shyu, M.L., Chen, S.C., Sarinnapakorn, K. and Chang, L., 2003. A novel anomaly detection scheme based on principal component classifier. MIAMI UNIV CORAL GABLES FL DEPT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING.
[11] Rousseeuw, P.J. and Driessen, K.V., 1999. A fast algorithm for the minimum covariance determinant estimator. Technometrics, 41(3), pp.212-223.
[12] Hardin, J. and Rocke, D.M., 2004. Outlier detection in the multiple cluster setting using the minimum covariance determinant estimator. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 44(4), pp.625-638.